\ 


THE 

PSYCHOANALYTIC 

METHOD 


BY 

DR.  OSKAR  PFISTER 

Pastor  and  Seminary  Teacher  in  Zurich 


AUTHORIZED  TRANSLATION 
BY 

DR.  CHARLES  ROCKWELL  PAYNE 


WITH  INTRODUCTIONS  BY 

PROFESSOR  FREUD  AND  PROFESSOR  STANLEY  HALL 
AND  THREE  PLATES 


q 9 7 7 ^ 


KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  & CO.,  LTD. 
Broadway  House,  68-74  Carter  Lane,  London,  E.C. 


Reprinted  (by  arrangement)  from  the  American  Edition 


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TO 

PROF.  JAMES  JACKSON  PUTNAM 

in  appreciation  of  his  service  in 
introducing  Psychoanalysis 
in  America 


Oskar  Pfisteb 
Charles  Rockwell  P/>y>je 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 
Duke  University  Libraries 


https://archive.org/details/psychoanalyticme01pfis_0 


INTRODUCTION 
By  Sigmund  Freud  (Vienna). 

Psychoanalysis  originated  on  a medical  basis  as  a method 
of  treatment  for  certain  nervous  maladies  which  are  called 
functional  and  in  which  there  is  recognized  with  constantly  in- 
creasing certainty  the  result  of  disturbances  of  the  affectivity. 
It  attains  its  object  of  removing  the  expressions  of  such  dis- 
turbances, the  symptoms,  by  presupposing  that  these  symptoms 
may  not  be  the  only  possible  and  final  outcome  of  certain  mental 
processes,  and  with  that  in  view,  exposes  the  history  of  the 
development  of  the  symptoms  in  the  memory,  reawakens  the 
processes  lying  underneath  these  symptoms  and  affords  them  a 
more  favorable  outlet  under  the  guidance  of  the  physician. 
Psychoanalysis  has  set  up  the  same  therapeutic  goal  as  the  hyp- 
notic treatment,  which,  introduced  by  Liebault  and  Bemheim, 
after  a long  and  hard  struggle  had  acquired  a place  in  the 
technique  of  neurologists.  It  goes  far  deeper,  however,  into 
the  structure  of  the  mental  mechanism  and  seeks  to  attain  per- 
manent results  and  lasting  changes  as  its  objects. 

The  hypnotic  suggestion  treatment,  in  its  time,  very  soon 
passed  the  bounds  of  medical  application  and  established  itself 
in  the  service  of  education  of  young  persons.  If  we  may  be- 
lieve the  reports,  it  has  proven  itself  an  effective  means  of 
overcoming  the  faults  of  children,  disturbing  physical  habits 
and  traits  of  character  otherwise  incorrigible.  No  one  raised 
objections  at  that  time  or  expressed  surprise  over  this  extension 
of  its  field  of  usefulness  which  has  become  fully  intelligible  to 
us  only  by  the  aid  of  psychoanalytic  investigation.  For,  to- 
day, we  know  that  the  pathological  symptoms  are  often  nothing 
else  than  substitute  formations  for  bad,  i.  e.  unsuitable,  tenden- 


v 


VI 


INTRODUCTION 


cies,  and  that  the  conditions  of  the  symptoms  are  established  in 
the  years  of  childhood  and  adolescence — at  the  same  time  in 
which  the  individual  is  the  object  of  education — whether  the 
maladies  actually  appear  in  youth  or  only  in  a later  period  of 
life. 

Education  and  therapy  now  appear  in  a reciprocal  relation 
to  each  other.  Education  will  take  care  that  from  certain  dis- 
positions and  tendencies  of  the  child,  nothing  harmful  to  the 
individual  or  society  shall  proceed.  Therapy  will  come  into 
play  if  these  same  dispositions  have  already  caused  the  un- 
wished-for  result  of  a pathological  symptom.  The  other  out- 
come, namely,  that  the  unsuitable  dispositions  of  the  child  have 
led,  not  to  substitute  formations  in  symptoms,  but  to  direct 
character  perversions,  is  almost  inaccessible  to  therapy  and 
most  withdrawn  from  the  influence  of  the  educator.  Educa- 
tion is  a prophylaxis  which  should  prevent  both  results,  the 
neurosis  and  the  perversion;  psychotherapy  will  render  the 
more  labile  of  the  two  results  retroactive  and  institute  a kind 
of  re-education. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  the  question  presents  itself  whether 
one  may  not  utilize  psychoanalysis  for  the  purposes  of  educa- 
tion as  the  hypnotic  suggestion  has  been  utilized  in  its  time. 
The  advantages  of  this  use  of  psychoanalysis  would  be  obvious. 
The  educator  is  prepared  on  the  one  hand,  through  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  general  human  dispositions  of  childhood,  to  guess 
which  of  the  childish  dispositions  threaten  to  attain  an  un- 
desired outlet  and  if  psychoanalysis  is  of  influence  in  such 
errors  of  development,  he  can  bring  it  into  use  before  the 
signs  of  an  unfavorable  development  are  established.  Thus, 
he  can  influence  children  who  are  still  healthy,  prophylac- 
tically,  by  means  of  the  analysis.  On  the  other  hand,  he  can 
detect  the  first  signs  of  a development  toward  a neurosis  or 
perversion  and  guard  the  child  against  such  further  develop- 
ment, at  a time  when,  for  a number  of  reasons,  it  would  never 
be  taken  to  a physician.  One  could  conceive  that  such  a psy- 
choanalytic activity  on  the  part  of  the  educator — and  the 
pastor  in  Protestant  countries  who  occupies  a similar  position 


INTRODUCTION 


Vll 


— might  afford  invaluable  assistance  and  often  render  the  in- 
tervention of  the  physician  superfluous. 

It  may  be  asked  whether  the  practice  of  psychoanalysis  does 
not  presuppose  a medical  education  which  must  remain  lack- 
ing to  the  educator  and  pastor,  or  whether  other  relations  are 
not  antagonistic  to  the  purpose  of  placing  the  psychoanalytic 
technique  in  other  than  medical  hands.  I confess  that  I see 
no  such  obstacles.  The  practice  of  psychoanalysis  defuands 
much  less  medical  education  than  psychological  preparation 
and  free  human  insight ; the  majority  of  physicians,  however, 
are  not  fitted  for  the  practice  of  psychoanalysis  and  have  com- 
pletely failed  in  placing  a correct  valuation  on  .this  method  of 
treatment.  The  educator  and  pastor  are  bound  by  the  de- 
mands of  their  vocations  to  exercise  the  same  consideration, 
forbearance  and  restraint  which  the  physician  is  accustomed  to 
observe  and  their  being  habitually  associated  with  youth  makes 
them  perhaps  better  suited  to  have  a sympathetic  insight  into 
the  mental  life  of  this  class  of  persons.  The  guarantee  for  a 
harmless  application  of  the  psychoanalytic  method  can,  how- 
ever, only  be  afforded  in  both  cases  by  the  personality  of  the 
analyst. 

The  approach  to  the  field  of  mental  abnormalities  will  com- 
pel the  analyzing  educator  to  make  himself  familiar  with  the 
most  exact  psychiatric  knowledge  and  to  take  the  physician 
into  consultation  where  the  diagnosis  and  outcome  of  the  dis- 
turbance may  appear  doubtful.  In  a number  of  cases,  results 
will  only  come  from  mutual  co-operation  of  educator  and 
physician. 

In  a single  point,  the  responsibility  of  the  educator  may 
perhaps  exceed  that  of  the  physician.  The  physician,  as  a 
rule,  has  to  deal  with  mental  formations  already  fixed  and 
will  find  in  the  already  developed  individuality  of  the  patient 
a boundary  already  established  for  his  activity,  but  also  a 
security  for  the  patient’s  independence.  The  educator,  how- 
ever, works  on  plastic  material  which  is  sensitive  to  every  im- 
pression and  he  must  observe  the  duty  of  not  molding  the 
young  mental  life  according  to  his  own  personal  ideals  but 


VU1 


INTRODUCTION 


rather  according  to  the  dispositions  and  possibilities  inherent 
in  the  object. 

May  the  application  of  psychoanalysis  in  the  service  of 
education  soon  fulfill  the  hopes  which  educators  and  physi- 
cians attach  to  it!  A book  like  this  of  Pfister’s,  which  will 
make  the  analysis  known  to  educators,  will  then  be  assured 
of  the  gratitude  of  future  generations. 

Vienna,  February,  1913. 


INTRODUCTION 

By  G.  Stanley  Hall,  President  of  Clark  University 

This  volume  upon  its  appearance  in  German  in  1913  at 
once  took  its  place  in  the  literature  on  the  subject  as  the  most 
adequate  of  several  earlier  compends  that  had  appeared,  both 
in  German  and  English.  I immediately  adopted  it  as  a refer- 
ence text  for  my  own  classes  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  make 
a rather  lengthy  epitome  of  it  myself  for  the  use  of  those  mem- 
bers of  my  classes  that  were  not  familiar  with  German.  The 
author  has  been  intimately  and  personally  associated  with  the 
psychoanalytic  movement  from  the  first,  and  has  practical 
acquaintance  with  its  technique,  but  is  not  a physician  and 
approaches  the  subject  in  a way  which,  without  being  less 
serviceable  to  practitioners,  makes  the  theme  on  the  whole 
more  accessible  to  laymen.  He  has  the  still  greater  advantage 
of  having  held  sufficiently  aloof  from  not  only  the  controversies 
between  Freud  and  Adler  but  those  between  what  might  be 
called  the  Vienna  and  the  Zurich  schools.  The  author’s 
method  here  is  to  present  each  topic  in  a clear  and  concise  way 
and  then  to  illustrate  it  by  cases.  The  translation  is  not  only 
at  once  the  most  timely  and  will  be  welcome  to  all  English- 
readers  interested  in  the  subject,  but  it  is  made  by  a thoroughly 
competent  and  experienced  hand  whose  earlier  translation  of 
Hitschmann’s  “Freud’s  Theory  of  the  Neuroses”  has  been 
widely  commended  and  widely  used.  Piaster  certainly  has 
rare  ability  to  condense,  elucidate  and  take  us  to  the  heart  of 
problems,  as  may  be  seen  in  his  pithy  article  lately  printed 
in  the  American  Journal  of  Psychology  (January,  1915)  on 
“Psychoanalysis  and  the  Study  of  Children  and  Youth.” 

G.  Stanley  Hall. 

Clark  University, 

"Worcester,  Mass.,  May,  1915. 

JX 


PREFACE 


When  I had  proceeded  some  ways  on  a special  work  on  psy- 
choanalysis for  psychologists,  pedagogues  and  theologians,  the 
“Herausgeber”  of  “Piidagogium”  (Prof.  Dr.  Messmer)  sur- 
prised me  with  the  advice  to  write  a book  on  the  same  subject 
designed  especially  for  the  professional  educator.  Reluctantly 
I gave  up  the  former  alluring  plan.  The  eloquence  of  Prof. 
Dr.  Messmer  and  still  more  his  own  keen  and  understanding 
penetration  into  the  spirit  of  pedanalysis,  as  well  as  other 
pleasing  observations  among  our  mutual  colleagues,  convinced 
me  that  the  pedagogues,  because  of  their  mental  equipment  and 
their  longing  for  the  great  thing  here  represented,  were  especi- 
ally well  prepared  in  advance.  I was  also  compelled  to  see 
that  an  impartial  attention  to  the  interests  of  three  professional 
circles  would  have  too  greatly  expanded  my  book. 

Futhermore,  there  is  only  one  theory  and  technique  of 
psychoanalysis.  Therefore,  psychologists  and  theologians,  as 
well  as  my  brother  educators,  for  whom  my  book  is  intended, 
can  use  it  as  an  introduction  to  the  investigation  of  the  un- 
conscious submerged  forces  in  their  fields.  Indeed,  if  certain 
medical  leaders  of  psychoanalysis  are  right,  even  physicians 
will  gain  in  the  following  work  an  explanation  of  the  funda- 
mental presuppositions  of  their  analytic  labors  since  the 
book  marks  the  first  attempt  at  a systematic  presentation  of 
pyschoanalysis  derived  by  induction. 

As  a book  of  one  seeker  of  truth  intended  for  other  seekers, 
the  following  investigations  are  intended.  I wished,  not  so 
much  to  show  what  splendid  things  we  have  accomplished,  as 
rather  by  the  proof  of  indisputable  results  of  greater  range 
to  awaken  a desire  for  new  and  perhaps  still  greater  conquests. 


XI 


Xll 


PREFACE 


Therefore,  I have  presented  pyschoanalysis  as  a growing 
method,  struggling  toward  knowledge,  constantly  broadening 
its  field  of  influence  by  sturdy  efforts. 

Many  critics  and  laity  will  reproach  me  for  not  giving  a 
confident  answer  to  important  questions.  Certain  psycho- 
analysts will  insist  that  where  they  themselves  have  attained 
certainty,  it  should  be  demanded  of  me,  and  certain  inquisitive 
ones  who  prefer  to  have  their  mental  food  served  well-done, 
will  receive  my  conservatism  ungraciously.  In  defence,  I 
can  only  present  the  shield  of  my  scientific  conscience  and  hope 
for  the  support  of  those  for  whom  co-operation  in  the  solution 
of  great  problems,  the  exploration  of  the  virgin  land  of  great 
promise  but  also  of  great  difficulties,  affords  a greater  attraction 
than  the  visiting  of  well-mapped  lands. 

Expressions  of  criticism,  I look  upon  as  sincere  desire  for 
knowledge.  I know  that  my  first  pedanalytic  attempt  goes 
forth  into  the  world  with  not  a few  defects  and  am  therefore 
very  susceptible  to  expert  instruction.  Thus  far,  criticism 
hostile  to  analysis  suffers  throughout  from  a fatal  disease 
which  I would  call  “ ontophobia,  ” fear  of  the  facts.  It  will 
be  sad  for  me  if  my  work  also  falls  into  ontophobic  hands, 
for  it  is  intended  only  for  those  who  test  for  themselves,  those 
who  are  hungry  for  facts. 

"With  a few  insignificant  exceptions,  I am  not  going  into 
polemics.  He  who  does  not  understand  that  holy 1 1 tolle,  lege,  ’ ’ 
‘ ‘ take,  read ! ’ ’ which  points  to  the  book  of  reality  as  the  instru- 
ment of  delivery  from  error  and  bondage,  is  not  to  be  won  by 
ever  so  striking  dialectic  means. 

Not  because  of  the  opponents  but  out  of  love  for  the  truth, 
I have  laid  great  stress  on  the  proof  that  the  much  calumniated 
and  more  than  once  misused  psychoanalysis,  is  not  only  com- 
patible with  the  highest  ethical  and  religious  demands  but  ab- 
solutely presupposes  them,  something  which  the  very  malicious 
and  ignorant  ones  may  laugh  at.  The  analysis  has  strength- 
ened me  in  the  conviction  that  the  human  being  is  in  no  way 
merely  a sexual  being  of  the  highest  order  (which  no  psycho- 
analyst has  ever  asserted)  but  that  the  varied  mental  wealth 


PREFACE 


Xlll 


and  noble  characteristics  which  the  idealistic  philosophy  has 
found  in  him,  really  belong  to  him.  To  be  sure,  I could  not 
avoid  the  insight  that  the  sexual  life  possesses  a far  higher 
significance  in  our  mental  household  than  the  traditional 
psychology— -in  contrast  to  many  poets  and  other  students  of 
humanity — is  willing  to  admit.  The  closer  investigation  im- 
mediately showed,  however,  that  the  sexual  life  may  be  most 
intimately  bound  up  with  the  affairs  of  the  mind  so  that  the 
purely  animal  in  it,  being  the  less  important,  is  forcibly 
crowded  into  the  background.  "We  are  also  not  shocked  by 
the  fact  that  in  art,  poetry,  morality  and  even  religion,  love 
plays  a predominant  role  and  that  Jesus  makes  a definite  love, 
a primary  commandment.  Gounod  says  beautifully:  “The 
law  of  life,  like  the  law  of  art,  is  described  in  the  saying  of  St. 
Augustine:  ‘Love  is  all.’ ” Why  should  anyone  become  ex- 
cited when  also  in  disease  of  the  mind,  in  the  dream,  in  ap- 
parently accidental  acts,  in  short,  in  all  performances  in  which 
mind  has  a part,  the  influence  of  love  comes  to  light  ? 

In  conclusion,  I wish  to  thank  most  heartily  those  who  have 
contributed  in  the  preparation  of  this  book,  first  of  all,  Prof. 
Dr.  Freud  who  aided  me  with  excellent  advice  and  active 
interest;  further,  Dr.  Jung,  who,  after  the  completion  of  the 
manuscript,  most  kindly  called  my  attention  to  a number  of 
improvements.  Finally,  I thank  most  sincerely  Prof.  Dr.  Mess- 
mer  who  placed  most  freely  at  my  disposal  his  psychological 
library  and  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the  most  reeeht  psychol- 
ogy and  in  addition  had  the  kindness  to  prepare  the  index. 

Now  may  the  work,  in  spite  of  its  imperfection,  prove  a 
blessing  to  the  noble  work  of  education  and  help  the  pedagogues 
to  an  acquirement  of  that  which  psychoanalysis  brought  me: 
an  immeasurable  enrichment  of  scientific  investigation  and 
practical  knowledge! 

Oskar  Pfisteb. 

Zurich,  May,  1913. 


TRANSLATOR’S  NOTE 


Those  who  have  read  the  original  German  edition  of  this 
book  will  notice  several  changes  in  the  translation.  The  au- 
thor entirely  revised  the  book  in  1915  and  sent  me  these 
revisions  and  changes  to  be  incorporated  in  my  translation. 
This  revision  has  been  carried  out  exactly  as  ordered.  The 
only  other  change  from  the  original  edition  is  the  omission  of 
chapter  two  which  deals  with  the  philosophical  aspects  of  the 
subject. 

C.  R.  Payne. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTEB  PAGE 

Introduction  : By  Sigmund  Freud v 

Introduction:  By  G.  Stanley  Hall ix 

Preface xi 

Translator’s  Note xv 

I Definition  and  History  of  Psychoanalysis  . . 1 

PART  I.  THE  THEORY  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 

II  The  Psychoanalytic  Conception  of  an  Uncon- 
scious   21 

Section  1.  The  Repression  and  Fixation 

HI  The  Unconscious  as  Product  of  Repression  and 

as  Entity  Free  from  Repression 48 

IV  The  Individual  Repressed  Material 60 

V The  Repressing  Force 91 

VI  The  Infantile  Roots  of  the  Repression  in  Detail  113 

VII  The  Repression  Process  . - 141 

VIII  The  General  Conditions 154 

Section  2.  Retrogressions  of  the  Repression,  Fixa- 
tion and  Repulsion 
(The  Manifestations ) 

IX  The  Physical  Manifestations 173 

X The  Most  Important  Psychic  Paths  .....  192 

XI  The  Content  of  the  Manifestations 258 

Xn  The  Forms  of  the  Manifestations 328 

XIH  The  Meaning  of  the  Manifestations 416 

xvii 


xviii 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART  II.  TECHNIQUE  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 

Section  1.  The  Methods 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIY  The  Fundamental  Rule  op  Psychoanalysis  and  its 

Application 429 

XV  Supplementary  Methods 436 

Section  2.  The  Effects  of  the  Psychoanalytic 
Probing 

XVI  The  Abreaction 446 

XVII  Compensation,  Recasting  of  the  Complex  and 

Transference 457 

XVIII  Rendering  Life-Problems  Conscious  and  Compre- 
hending Them  by  the  Aid  of  Analysis  . . . 477 

Section  3.  The  Course  of  the  Psychoanalytic 
Treatment 

XIX  The  Beginning  of  the  Analytic  Educational  Work 
with  Especial  Regard  to  the  Over-Coming  of 
the  Resistance 490 

XX  The  Material  of  the  Treatment  and  Its  Analytic 

Handling  . 500 

XXI  The  Duration  and  Conclusion  of  the  Psycho- 
analysis   507 

Section  4.  The  Prerequisites  of  the  Psychoanalysis 

XXII  The  Prerequisites  in  the  Analyst 513 

XXIII  The  Prerequisites  in  the  Subject  of  Analysis  . 518 

Section  5.  The  Practice  of  Pedanalysis 

XXIV  Learning  Pedanalysis 524 

XXV  The  Domain  of  the  Pedanalysis 529 

Conclusion:  Results  of  Psychoanalysis 

XXVI  The  Practical  Benefits 535 

XXVII  The  Results  for  Pedagogy 544 

Index 581 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACING 

PAGE 


Self-Portrait 390 

Requiem 394 

Madness 398 


CHAPTER  I 


DEFINITION  AND  HISTORY  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 

Psychoanalysis,  as  its  name  denotes,  concerns  itself  with 
the  separation  of  mental  processes  into  their  constituent  ele- 
ments. We  might,  indeed,  conjure  up  all  kinds  of  harm  if  we 
did  not  at  once  warn  against  considering  this  provisional  state- 
ment as  an  exact  definition. 

There  has  been  analysis  of  psychic  phenomena  since  prehis- 
toric times.  The  psychologist  who  separates  the  contents  of 
consciousness  into  its  constituent  parts  and  traces  them  back 
to  their  causes,  the  historian  of  art  who  seeks  the  origin  of  an 
important  creation,  the  biographer  who  is  engrossed  in  the  de- 
velopment of  his  hero,  the  physician  who  attempts  to  elucidate 
the  compelling  motives  of  a melancholia,  the  educator  who  en- 
deavors to  understand  the  mental  condition  of  his  pupil,  in 
short,  everyone  who  is  intent  upon  penetrating-  the  mental  life 
of  others  would  be,  according  to  the  statement  heading  our 
train  of  thought,  a psychoanalyst.  In  reality,  not  a few  repre- 
sentatives of  ancient  traditions,  in  view  of  the  results  of  the 
successfully  advancing  movement  which  bears  the  distinctive 
name,  pride  themselves  that  they  have  already  done  psycho- 
analysis for  decades. 

They  would  be  quite  right  if  the  meaning  of  the  word  was 
derived  by  merely  splitting  it  into  its  parts.  The  name  has, 
however,  gained  its  content  by  an  historical  process,  to  over- 
look which  would  create  a fatal  confusion.  In  order  to  escape 
the  annoying  cobwebs  and  arrive  at  the  correct  definition,  we 
have  to  present  in  detail  how  the  originator  of  the  name  and 
the  very  special  procedure  connoted  by  the  same,  reached  his 
theory  and  technique.  We  shall  see  that  the  criterion  of 
psychoanalysis  lies  in  a special  kind  of  inquiry  into  the  uncon- 

1 


£ 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


o'eious  mental  processes  which  powerfully  influence  the  con- 
scious life. 

In  the  year  1893,  Sigmund  Freud  * published,  in  collabora- 
tion with  his  colleague,  Josef  Breuer,  an  epoch-making  article 
entitled  “Concerning  the  Psychic  Mechanism  of  Hysterical 
Phenomena”  (“Uber  den  psychischen  Mechanismus  hys- 
terischer  Phanomene”).  In  order  to  understand  the  funda- 
mental ideas  of  this  short  but  important  work,  it  is  advisable 
to  investigate  its  connection  with  the  father  of  the  hysteria 
investigation,  J.  M.  Charcot  of  Paris  (1893).  The  celebrated 
director  of  the  Salpetriere  was  the  first  person  to  free  hys- 
terical individuals  from  the  stigma  of  ridiculousness,  earnestly 
to  study  and  systematically  to  arrange  their  symptoms,  in 
doing  which,  he  was  also  able  to  demonstrate  hysteria  in  the 
male  sex.  Especially  important  was  his  discovery,  made  by 
researchers  on  hypnotized  patients,  that  the  hysterical  paraly- 
ses which  appear  after  severe  emotional  shock,  the  socalled 
traumatic  t paralyses,  arise  from  ideas  which  control  the  per- 
sons in  moments  of  special  dispositions.  The  motor  disturb- 
ances may  be  produced  t in  hypnosis  and  even  in  suggestion. 

These  results  at  first  exercised  no  effect  on  therapeutic 
methods.  Charcot  remained  true  to  physical  and  chemical 
procedures.  He  advised  pressing  on  the  ovarian  region  at 
short  intervals,  under  certain  circumstances  for  hours,  in  order 
to  lessen  the  severity  of  the  convulsive  attacks  or  indeed  to  dis- 
sipate 1|  them.  To  overcome  an  hysterical  epileptical  con- 
dition, he  ordered  ether  or  amyl  nitrite.lf 
One  of  his  pupils,  Pierre  Janet,  cured  a case  of  complicated 
traumatic  hysteria  by  taking  the  patient  in  the  hypnotic  state 
back  to  the  time  when  the  shock  was  received  and  suggesting 

* Sigmund  Freud,  born  May  6,  1856,  in  Freiberg,  Moravia,  Austria, 
is  to-day  Professor  of  Neurology  in  the  University  of  Vienna, 
t From  “trauma,”  wound,  thus  about:  caused  by  injury, 
t Sigmund  Freud,  Sammlung  kleiner  Schriften  zur  Neurosenlehre 
I,  p.  12. 

j|  J.  M.  Charcot,  Legons  sur  les  maladies  du  syst&me  nerveux,  5th 
ad.,  Paris,  Vol.  I (1884),  pp.  339,  400. 
if P.  401  f. 


CHARCOT  AND  JANET 


3 


that  the  shock  was  harmless.  We  will  quote  the  account  of 
this  instructive  process  for  the  reader’s  perusal: 

Marie,  a girl  of  nineteen  years,  suffered  upon  her  admission 
to  the  institution  from  periodic  convulsions  and  deliria.  Be- 
fore the  beginning  of  her  menstrual  periods,  her  character 
changed,  she  became  gloomy  and  violent  and  had  pains  in  all 
her  limbs  together  with  nervous  disturbances.  Barely  twenty 
hours  after  the  onset  of  the  flow,  the  menstruation  would  sud- 
denly cease,  a severe  chill  would  shake  her  whole  body  and  a 
severe  pain  slowly  ascend  from  body  to  throat  and  the  great 
hysterical  crises  begin.  The  violent  convulsions  were  soon 
succeeded  by.  deliria.  Now,  the  patient  uttered  cries  of  terror, 
meanwhile  talking  constantly  of  blood  and  fire  and  fleeing  to 
escape  the  flames,  now  she  played  like  a child,  spoke  with  her 
mother  and  climbed  on  the  stove  or  furniture.  Delirium  and 
convulsions  alternated  with  short  intermissions  for  forty-eight 
hours.  After  repeated  vomiting  of  blood,  the  normal  con- 
dition gradually  returned.  Between  these  major  monthly  at- 
tacks, Marie  had  minor  muscular  contractures,  various  chang- 
ing anesthesias  (entire  loss  of  sensation)  and  in  particular, 
complete  and  constant  blindness  of  the  left  eye. 

For  seven  months  the  disease  resisted  all  medical  pro- 
cedures. Especially  did  suggestive  measures  regarding  the 
menstruation  have  only  bad  effects  and  increased  the  deliria. 

The  hypnotic  investigation  yielded  the  following:  At  the 
age  of  thirteen,  about  twenty  hours  after  the  onset  of  the  first 
menstruation,  Marie,  impelled  by  false  shame,  secretly  took  a 
cold  bath,  by  which  the  flow  was  suddenly  interrupted.  At 
the  same  time  there  appeared  severe  chills  and  delirium  lasting 
for  days.  When,  after  five  years,  the  menstrual  periods  re- 
turned, they  brought  the  above  described  condition  with  them. 
Thus,  the  patient  repeated  the  bath  scene  monthly  without 
knowing  it. 

The  cure  did  not  succeed  by  the  mere  hypnotic  removal  of 
the  fixed  idea.  Only  when  the  patient  in  hypnosis  had  been 
taken  back  to  the  age  of  thirteen,  could  the  conviction  be 
awakened  that  the  menstrual  period  would  normally  come  to 


4 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


an  end  in  a course  of  three  days.  Immediately,  no  further 
periodic  disturbances  were  to  be  seen  in  the  patient. 

The  cries  of  terror  were  explained  by  the  circumstance  that 
Marie,  when  sixteen  years  old,  saw  an  old  woman  killed  by  a 
fall  from  the  stairs.  With  considerable  trouble,  the  girl  was 
shown  in  artificial  sleep  that  the  old  woman  only  stumbled  and 
had  not  died.  The  cries  ceased  from  that  moment. 

Most  difficult  was  the  explanation  of  the  hysterical  blind- 
ness. Finally,  it  was  discovered  that  Marie,  when  six  years 
old,  had  been  compelled  one  day  in  spite  of  her  outcries,  to 
sleep  with  a child  of  similar  age  which  had  scrofula  on  the 
whole  left  side  of  its  face.  Soon  after,  Marie  developed  the 
same  trouble  on  the  same  place.  When  the  scrofula  disap- 
peared, it  left  behind  anesthesia  of  the  left  half  of  the  face  and 
blindness  of  the  left  eye.  Again  the  girl  was  taken  back  to  the 
time  of  the  first  shock.  The  physician  pictured  the  pretty 
comrade  entirely  free  from  scrofula.  At  the  second  repetition 
of  the  scene,  the  now  convinced  patient  caressed  the  imaginary 
child  and  upon  awakening  could  see  perfectly  normally.* 

The  method  applied  by  Pierre  Janet,  although  recognized  t 
by  Delboeuf  and  Binet  as  an  effective  means  of  treatment, 
was  not  considered  a regular  method  nor  established  theoret- 
ically. 

An  accidental  discovery,  the  enormous  importance  of  which 
its  fortunate  discoverer  himself  did  not  sufficiently  appreciate, 
opened  up  new  paths.  In  the  years  1880-82  the  Vienna 
physician,  Dr.  Josef  Breuer,  was  engaged  with  a famous 
patient-1  The  girl,  aged  twenty-one,  suffered  from  severe 
hysteria,  the  most  important  symptom  of  which  consisted  of 
paralysis  and  anesthesia  of  the  limbs  on  the  right  (less  often 
left)  side  of  the  body,  of  squinting,  cough  and  other  physical 
troubles.  The  walis  seemed  to  be  falling  on  the  patient.  Two 
sharply  differentiated  mental  conditions  could  be  noted : 

* Pierre  Janet,  L’automatisme  psychologique,  Paris,  1889,  pp.  43ft- 
440. 

f Freud,  Sammlung  kleiner  Sehriften  I,  p.  18,  1909. 

i Breuer  & Freud,  Studien  iiber  Hysterie.  Leipzig  & Vienna,  Deu- 
ticke,  1895,  2d  ed.,  1909. 


BREUER  AND  FREUD 


5 


One,  almost  normal,  which  was  distinguished  only  by  sadness 
and  another,  abnormal  condition  of  extreme  excitement  which 
was  often  accompanied  by  hallucinations.  The  power  of 
speech  disappeared  and  for  two  weeks  the  patient  was  dumb. 
One  day  when  she  was  sitting  on  her  father’s  bed,  she  saw  a 
snake  which  would  bite  her.  In  the  attempt  to  ward  off  the 
reptile,  she  noticed  that  the  fingers  of  her  hand  changed  into 
snakes  with  death’s  heads.  From  fear,  she  attempted  to  pray 
but  could  recall  only  an  English  child’s  prayer.  From  that 
hour,  without  noticing  it,  she  spoke  only  English  and  no 
longer  understood  her  mother  tongue.  In  unconsciousness, 
she  murmured  some  words.  When  one  of  these  words  was 
kept  before  her,  she  phantasied  an  episode  from  which  she 
received  a certain  ease  of  mind.  A year  after  the  death  of 
her  father,  the  two  conditions  changed  so  that  the  patient 
lived  as  a normal  person  in  the  present  but  repeated  from  day 
to  day,  in  the  abnormal  state,  the  events  of  the  preceding 
year,  as  the  mother  could  substantiate  from  a diary  she 
kept. 

Though  this  clinical  history  already  affords  enough  of 
striking  nature,  another  particularly  important  circumstance 
was  added.  When  Breuer  had  dictated  to  the  hysterical 
patient  in  hypnosis  what  she  had  whispered  in  her  unconscious 
state  (absence),  she  gave  an  account  of  the  whole  phantasy 
from  which  those  words  came.  It  showed  that  the  scattered 
words  were  like  the  flag  appearing  above  a wall,  behind  which 
was  marching  a body  of  troops  bearing  it.  If  the  events  which 
had  caused  the  symptom  could  be  successfully  drawn  out,  then 
the  cessation  of  the  pathological  phenomenon  followed  the 
oral  description.  For  example,  the  fear  of  water,  the  girl 
traced  back  to  the  impression  that  a dirty  little  dog  had  drunk 
from  a glass  without  her  being  able  to  raise  any  objection. 
After  this  memory,  the  aversion  to  the  drinking  of  water  dis- 
appeared. The  squint  and  exaggeration  of  visual  objects  went 
back  to  the  circumstance  that  the  girl  with  tears  in  her  eyes, 
had  brought  the  clock  close  to  her  face  in  order  to  tell  the  time. 
When  the  whole  story  of  suffering  had  been  traced  back  to  its 


6 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


causes,  her  health  had  also  completely  and  permanently  re- 
turned. 

From  these  and  similar  phenomena,  Breuer  and  Freud,  who 
urged  his  colleague  to  publish  the  material  which  he  had  been 
gathering  for  more  than  a decade,  drew  the  following  con- 
clusions: Very  many  of  the  hysterical  symptoms  are  occa- 
sioned by  an  idea  which  occurs  to  the  patient  with  strong 
affect  at  a time  of  sleepiness  (166).  In  case  the  latter  is  not 
conducted  along  normal  mental  association  paths  and,  as  you 
might  say,  distributed,  it  jumps  to  abnormal  physical  and 
mental  paths  and  produces  the  hysterical  phenomenon.  Thus, 
the  hysterical  individual  suffers,  as  we  may  say,  in  great 
part,  from  reminiscences.  The  cure  is  effected  by  bringing 
that  reminiscence  accompanied  by  its  suitable  excitement  into 
consciousness  and  then  allowing  it  to  fade  away  normally. 
To  put  it  differently,  the  pent-up  affect  is  brought  into  con- 
sciousness and  carried  out  in  speech  or  removed  by  medical 
suggestion;  it  “is  abreacted.”  Since  Breuer ’s  intelligent 
patient  gave  the  name  of  “chimney-sweeping”  (“Kamm- 
fegen”)  to  the  talking  treatment,  which  had  been  tried  on  her, 
her  fortunate  discoverer  called  the  method  the  “cathartic 
method”  (from  Ka6alpav  to  purify).  Its  differentiation  from 
that  of  Janet’s  lies  in  the  fact  that  a bit  of  the  patient’s  past, 
which  is  lost  to  his  memory,  namely  the  occasion  of  the  disease, 
is  rendered  conscious,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  intentional 
bringing  at  the  same  time  of  a suggested  idea  standing  in  con- 
tradiction to  the  pathological  idea,  is  given  up.  We  again 
call  attention  to  the  fact  that  hypnosis  and  abreaction,  the 
speaking  out  of  a forgotten  but  affectful  traumatic  happening 
which  has  hurt  the  mind,  now  brought  back  to  consciousness, 
constitute  the  essential  features  of  the  cathartic  method. 

Breuer  and  Freud  presented  the  views  thus  gained  in  a 
short  preliminary  publication  * and  again  in  the  book, 
“Studies  in  Hysteria”  (“Studien  liber  Hysterie”  t)  which 

* Breuer  & Freud,  uber  den  psychischen  Mechanismus  hysterisclier 
Phanomene.  Neurolog.  Zentralblatt,  1893,  Nos.  1 & 2. 

f Leipzig  and  Vienna,  Deuticke,  2d  ed.,  1909.  (The  citations  refer 
to  the  latter  edition.) 


BREUER  AND  FREUD 


7 


appeared  in  1895.  This  important  work  contains  in  Freud’s 
contributions  the  fundamental  ideas  which  led  to  the  psycho- 
analytic method.  We  will  mention  the  most  important : 
Many  hysterical  symptoms,  for  example  visions,  express  sym- 
bolically ideas  which  may  be  found  below  the  threshold  of 
consciousness  (51,  157f¥.).  This  idea  was  once  conscious  but 
on  account  of  its  painful  character,  was  repressed  (99,  145, 
235) ; some  of  its  parts,  however,  still  break  through  into 
ordinary  consciousness  (57).  All  hysteria  rests  on  such  re- 
pression (250).  The  content  of  the  repressed  idea  is  of  sexual 
nature  (224)  and  various  analogous  causes  must  be  present 
to  produce  the  symptom  (63,  229).  Hypnosis*  can  be  dis- 
pensed with  (92f.)  but  the  resistance  which  the  patient  pre- 
sents against  the  repressed  ideas  being  brought  into  con- 
sciousness must  be  overcome  by  strong  pressure  (2341).  Al- 
ready, Freud  ventures  on  the  interpretation  of  dreams,  with- 
out, however,  recognizing  the  importance  of  these  in  the  treat- 
ment of  hysterical  troubles  (57).  Impressions  of  earliest 
childhood  are  already  given  attention  (115).  Also  that  phe- 
nomenon to  which  Freud  later,  when  he  had  lost  faith  in  the 
omnipotence  of  abreaction,  ascribed  the  determining  influence 
in  the  healing  process,  the  socalled  “transference,”  is  in  good 
part  outlined.  Of  this,  Freud  knew  that  the  patient  trans- 
ferred upon  the  physician  some  of  the  painful  ideas  emerging 
from  the  unconscious  during  the  analysis  (2661),  thus,  for 
example,  the  wish  cherished  for  a kiss  from  another  man  would 
be  changed  to  a similar  wish  toward  the  physician.  Mit- 
tenzwey  is  greatly  in  error  when  he  believes  that  Freud’s 
progress  beyond  Breuer’s  ideas  at  this  epoch  consists  merely 
in  the  extension  of  the  method  to  all  the  neuroses,  in  the 
introduction  of  the  term  “defence”  (“Abwehr”)  and  the 
exclusively  sexual  causation  of  the  neuroses,  t 

One  peculiarity  of  the  Freudian  method  may  now  be 

‘Authors  like  Forel  and  Frank  (Die  Psychanaiyse  (1909),  Munich, 
Reinhardt)  who  speak  well  of  psychoanalysis  but  ding  to  hypnosis,  are 
adherents  of  the  “cathartic”  but  not  of  the  psychoanalytic  conception. 

f K.  Mittenzwey,  Versuch  zu  einer  Darstellung  und  Kritik  der  Freud- 
schen  Neurosenlehre.  Zeitschrift  fur  Pathopsychologie  I (1912),  p.  413, 


8 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


pointed  out : Freud  allows  his  patient  to  tell  without  criticism 
everything  which  comes  into  his  head  while  in  the  physician ’s 
presence.  Where  he  observes  gaps  or  striking  discrepancies, 
he  directs  the  apperception  directly  to  these  points  and  has  the 
patient  give  associations  to  them.  The  associations  thus  col- 
lected, he  submits  to  a method  of  interpretation  which  he  has 
developed  from  many  years  of  experience;  the  independent 
substantiation  of  this  method,  no  regular  analyst  can  or  will 
avoid.  The  essential  features  of  Freud’s  psychoanalysis  are, 
in  addition  to  the  abandonment  of  hypnosis,  an  association 
and  interpretation  method.  In  these  sentences,  we  have  given 
the  characteristics  of  the  psychoanalytic  method. 

It  is  now  high  time  to  give  the  reader  an  answer  to  a ques- 
tion which  must  have  gradually  aroused  his  impatience.  How 
does  all  this  concern  the  educator?  Professionally,  he  has 
nothing  to  do  with  hysterical  individuals.  I cannot  better 
answer  the  justifiable  interpolation  than  by  continuing  with 
my  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  development  of  psycho- 
analysis. 

Freud  recognized  ever  more  clearly  that  the  processes  which 
produced  nervous  disturbances  are  also  of  highest  influence 
on  the  mental  life  of  normal  individuals  and  can  be  equally 
well  studied  in  them.  Without  being  unfaithful  to  the  med- 
ical interest,  the  Vienna  neurologist  developed  a new  kind  of 
psychology  which  penetrated  to  the  unconscious  causes  of 
mental  performances.  He  once  defined  psychoanalysis  as 
“the  investigation  of  the  unconscious  part  of  the  individual 
mental  life.”*  For  a long  time  astute  judges  of  human 
nature  had  asserted  that  many  of  the  highest  performances  of 
the  mind  were  created,  not  in  the  laboratory  of  conscious 
thinking,  feeling  and  willing,  but  in  the  subterranean  cham- 
bers which  had  often  been  denominated  as  the  unconscious. 
Schiller  describes  this  conception  in  the  familiar  lines : 

“As  in  the  air  the  storm  wind  blows. 

One  knows  not  whence  it  comes  or  goes, 

As  the  spring  gushes  forth  from  hidden  depths, 

‘Freud,  Das  Tabu  und  die  Ambivalenz,  Imago  I (1912),  p.  220. 


FREUD’S  PSYCHOLOGY 


9 


So  comes  the  poet’s  song  from  within 
And  awakes  the  power  of  dim  emotions 
Which  wonderfully  slumber  in  the  heart.”  * 

Again  Schiller  says:  ‘‘The  unconscious  united  with  dis- 
cretion makes  the  poetic  artist.”  t 

Also,  artistic  inspiration,  religious  experience  (James, 
“Religious -Experience,”  443f.,  461-467),  indeed  even  philo- 
sophical speculation  (Nietzsche)  have  long  ago  been  traced 
back  to  mental  processes  lying  under  the  threshold  of  con- 
sciousness. 

Freud’s  investigations  not  only  substantiate  these  surmises 
but  also  afford  the  proof  that  the  whole  conscious  mental  life, 
especially  on  its  affective  side,  is  ruled  and  directed  by  such 
subconscious  (“subliminal”  from  limen,  threshold)  motives. 
Freud  and  his  pupils  are  interested,  first  of  all,  in  the  neuroses 
(popularly,  nervous  diseases)  and  mental  diseases  in  which 
anatomical  anomalies  are  not  demonstrable,  the  socalled  func- 
tional psychoses,  then  further,  in  numerous  affairs  of  nor- 
mal mental  functions  which  had  been  partly  treated  cur- 
sorily as  mysterious,  partly  left  unobserved.  In  1900,  ap- 
peared Freud’s  “Traumdeutung”  % (“Interpretation  of 
Dreams”$),  the  most  comprehensive,  perhaps  also  the  most 
important  work  of  the  author.  He  who  would  judge  it,  must 
certainly  overcome  his  aversion  to  the  mysterious  title  and 
his  resistance  to  a not  unimportant  mental  product.  Further, 
he  cannot  avoid  the  trouble  of  working  over  a number  of  his 
own  or  another’s  dreams  according  to  Freud’s  formulae.  Oth- 
erwise, it  is  obvious  that  an  acceptable  scientific  judgment 
cannot  be  formed. 

In  1901,  appeared  Freud’s  book,  “Psychopathology  of 
Everyday  Life”  (“Zur  Psychopathologie  des  Alltags”  ||)  on 
forgetting,  errors  in  speech,  superstition  and  mistakes.  In 

* Compare  my  article : Anwendungen  der  Psychanalyse  in  der 
P&dagogik  nnd  Seelsorge,  Imago  I (1912),  pp.  55-82. 

t From  O.  Rank,  Das  Inzestmotiv  in  Dichtung  und  Sage,  p.  1. 

t Leipzig  and  Vienna,  Deuticke,  2d  ed.,  1909,  3rd  ed.,  1911.  Also 
English  translation  by  Brill  of  New  York. 

||  Berlin,  Karger,  2d  ed.,  1907. 


10 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


this  work,  the  writer  seeks  to  prove  that  the  actions  mentioned 
in  the  subtitle,  as  well  as  many  other  accidental  or  apparently 
meaningless  acts,  frequently  come  from  unconscious  motives 
and  owe  their  origin  to  the  same  mechanism  which  prevails  in 
the  dream,  neurosis  and  functional  psychosis.  In  1905,  fol- 
lowed an  extensive  investigation  of  wit  and  its  relation  to 
the  unconscious.*  In  1907,  Freud  considered  the  foundation 
of  religious  psychology  in  his  article,  “Obsessional  Acts  and 
Religious  Practices”  (“Zwangshandlungen  und  Religionsii- 
bung”  f).  The  same  year,  pedagogy  received  its  first  atten- 
tion from  a psychoanalyst  in  the  open  letter  on  the  “Sexual 
Enlightenment  of  Children”  (“Zur  sexuellen  Aufklarung  der 
Kinder”  $).  These  works  were  followed  in  1908  by  the  first 
psychoanalytic  treatment  of  a literary  work,  entitled,  “The 
Delusion  and  Dreams  in  W.  Jensen’s  ‘Gradiva’  ” (“Der 
Wahn  und  die  Traume  in  W.  Jensen’s  Gradiva”  ||).  Psy- 
chology of  children  which  had  already  been  taken  as  a field  for 
analytic  investigation  as  early  as  1905,  in  “Three  Contribu- 
tions to  the  Sexual  Theory”  (“Dm  Abhandlungen  zur  Sex- 
ual theorie”)  received  in  1908  the  first  work  specially  devoted 
to  the  subject  in  the  article  “Concerning  Infantile  Sexual 
Theories”  (“Uber  infantile  Sexualtheorien” If).  The  views 
set  forth  there  were  substantiated  in  the  “Analysis  of  the 
Phobia  of  a Five  Year  Old  Boy”  (“Analyse  der  Phobie  eines 
fiinfjahrigen  Knaben”  §).  Into  the  domain  of  ethics,  Freud 
entered  in  1908  with  the  essay,  “Cultural  Sexual  Morality  and 
Modern  Nervousness”  (“Die  kulturelle  Sexualmoral  und  die 
moderne  Nervositat”  **).  The  psychology  of  poetry  and  art 
received  new  elucidation  in  the  article,  “Poet  and  Phantasy” 

* Leipzig  and  Vienna,  Deuticke. 

t Kleiner  Schriften  II,  122-131.  '(Originally  in  the  Zeitschrift  fur 
Religionspsychologie,  I,  Part  1.) 

t Same,  pp.  151-158. 

||  1910. 

IfPp.  159-174. 

§Jahrbuch  fur  psychoanalytische  und  psychopathologische  For- 
schungen,  I (1910),  pp.  1-109. 

**  Kleine  Schriften,  II,  pp.  175-196. 


BEGINNINGS  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 


11 


(“Der  Dichter  und  das  Phantasieren  ’ ’ (1908)  * and  in  the 
monograph  “A  Childhood  Reminiscence  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci”  (“Eine  Kindheitserinnerung  des  Leonardo  da  Vinci”) 
(1910). f Finally,  in  1910,  Freud  published  glimpses  into 
philology  in  his  short  article,  “Concerning  the  Contradictory 
Meanings  of  Primitive  Words”  (“tiber  den  Gegensinn  der 
Urworte”).  j 

For  a long  time  no  attention  was  paid  to  psychoanalysis. 
Its  results  called  forth  some  respectful  bows  but  mostly  only 
a shaking  of  heads.  The  first  persons  to  second  Freud  in 
scientific  publications  were  C.  G.  Jung,||  psychiatrist  in 
Zurich  and  his  chief,  E.  BleulerJ  Professor  of  Psychiatry  and 
Director  of  the  Cantonal  Institute  for  the  Insane.  After  these 
two  investigators,  in  spite  of  the  fiercest  hostility,  recognized 
the  correctness  of  Freud’s  assertions,  the  movement  which  had 
previously  been  received  in  dead  silence,  soon  became  discussed 
in  the  farthest  circles.  In  the  spring  of  1908,  the  adherents 
of  the  new  psychology  assembled  in  Salzburg  and  arranged  for 
the  publication  of  a periodical  journal  as  an  organ  for  the 
propagation  of  their  ideas.  As  a result  there  has  appeared 
annually  in  two  impressive  half-volumes,  the  “Jahrbuch  fur 
psychoanalytische  und  psyehopathologische  Forschungen” 
(Vol.  I,  Part  I,  1909)  (Yearbook  for  Psychoanalytic  and  Psy- 
chopathological  Investigations).  The  series  of  pamphlets  de- 
voted to  applied  psychology  (“Schriften  zur  angewandten 

* Kleine  Schriften,  II,  pp.  197-206. 

t Schriften  zur  angewandten  Seelenkunde,  Part  7. 

+ Jahrbuch,  Vol.  II,  pp.  179-184. 

||  Jung,  Ein  Fall  von  hysterischem  Stupor  bei  einer  Untersuchungs- 
gefangenen.  Journal  f.  Psychologie  und  Neurologie,  Vol.  I,  1902.  Die 
psyehologische  Bedeutung  des  Assoziationsexperimentes,  Archiv  f.  Krim- 
inalanthrop.  Vol.  22,  p.  145.  Exper.  Beobachtungen  iiber  d.  Erinner- 
ungsvermogen.  Zbl.  f.  Nervenheilk.  und  Psychiatrie,  Year  XXVIII 
(1905),  etc.  See  the  index  to  the  literature  in  the  Jahrbuch,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  363-375. 

IfFreudsche  Mechanismen  in  der  Symptomatologie  von  Psychosen. 
Psychiatr. -neurolog.  Wochenschrift  1906.  Affektivitat,  Suggestibilitat, 
Paranoia.  Halle,  1906,  contributions  in  the  “Diagnostischen  Assozia- 
tionsstudien”  edited  by  Jung. 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


IS 

Seelenkunde”  *)  edited  by  Freud  is  constantly  growing. 
The  Congress  sitting  at  Niirmberg  in  1909  concluded  the  for- 
mation of  the  International  Psychoanalytic  Association  which 
soon  had  sections  in  Vienna,  Zurich,  Berlin,  New  York  and 
Munich.  For  the  U.  S.  and  Canada,  a general  American  as- 
sociation was  founded.  Since  the  “Yearbook”  could  not 
contain  the  wealth  of  scientific  material,!  two  new  periodicals 
appeared:  In  1910,  the  “ Zentralblatt  fur  Psychoanalyse,”  a 
medical  monthly  for  mental  problems  % and  in  1912,  the  bi- 
monthly Imago,  a journal  for  the  application  of  psychoanalysis 
to  the  mental  sciences.||  Since  January,  1913,  there  has  ap- 
peared the  “Internationale  Zeitschrift  fur  arztliche  Psycho- 
analyse v (published  by  Heller,  Vienna,  18  marks  a year; 
edited  by  Ferenczi  and  Rank). 

In  November,  1913,  appeared  the  first  number  of  an  Ameri- 
can quarterly  devoted  to  psychoanalysis.  This  is  the  Psycho- 
analytic Review,  edited  by  Drs.  William  A.  White  of  Washing- 
ton and  Smith  Ely  Jelliffe  of  New  York  City. 

In  the  first  number  of  Imago,  we  find  a list  of  all  articles 
in  the  field  of  mental  sciences  published  up  to  the  end  of  1911. 
It  names  almost  two  hundred  articles  from  the  fields  of 
psychology,  sexual-,  dream-,  everyday-,  and  child-psychology, 
pedagogy  and  theory  of  morals,  characterology,  biography, 

*Up  to  the  end  of  1912,  thirteen  parts:  1.  Freud,  “Gradiva.”  2. 
Riklin,  Wunscherfiillung  und  Symbolik  in  Marchen.  3.  Jung,  Der  In- 
halt der  Psychose.  4.  Abraham,  Traum  und  Mythus.  5.  Rank,  Der 
Mythus  von  der  Geburt  des  Helden.  6.  Sadger,  Aus  d.  Liebesleben 
Nikolaus  Lenaus.  7.  Freud,  Eihe  Kindheitserinnerung  des  Leonardo 
da  Vinci.  8.  Pflster,  Die  Frommigkeit  des  Grafen  L.  v.  Zinzendorf. 
9.  Graf,  Rich.  Wagner  im  “Fliegenden  Hollander.”  10.  Jones,  Das 
Problem  des  Hamlet  un  der  Odipus-Komplex.  11.  Abraham,  Giovanni 
Segantini.  12.  Storfer,  Zur  Sonderstellung  des  Vatermordes.  13. 
Rank,  Die  Lohengrinsage.  14.  Jones,  Der  Alptraum  in  s.  Beziehung 
zu  gew.  Formen  d.  mittelalterl.  Aberglauhens. 

t Vol.  I,  594  pp.,  Vol.  II,  747  pp.,  Vol.  Ill,  857  pp.,  Vol.  IV,  Part  1, 

606  pp. 

t Published  by  Bergmann,  Wiesbaden.  18  Marks  per  year.  Edited 
by  W.  Stekel.  Suspended  publication  in  1914. 

||  Hugo  Heller,  Vienna.  15  Marks  per  year.  Edited  by  H.  Sachs 
and  O.  Rank. 


SPREAD  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS  13 

esthetics,  mythology,  religious-,  speech-,  social-  and  criminal- 
psychology. 

Among  pedagogic  journals,  two  have  entered  the  service  of 
psychoanalysis:  at  the  beginning  of  1912,  the  Berner  Semi- 
narblaiter,  journal  for  school  reform,  organ  of  the  Swiss 
Pedagogic  Association,  issued  under  the  auspices  of  Dr. 
Ernst  Schneider,  Director  of  the  Higher  Seminary  in  Bern, 
in  conjunction  with  Prof.  Dr.  Oskar  Messmer  in  Rorschach, 
Dr.  Otto  von  Greyerz  in  Glarisegg  and  the  author  of  this  book. 
Some  months  later,  the  “Monatshefte  fur  Padagogik  und 
Schulreform”  (Vienna)  was  won  by  Alfred  Adler  for 
psychoanalysis. 

The  first  pedagogues  who  publicly  recognized  the  im- 
portance -of  psychoanalysis  were  Prof.  Adolf  Liithi,  who  in 
1910  in  the  yearbook  of  the  “ Unterrichtswesens  in  der  Sweiz” 
(page  197)  reviewed  in  most  friendly  manner  my  first  peda- 
gogic articles  of  psychoanalytic  nature,  further  Prof.  Dr.  E. 
Meumann,*  Prof.  Dr.  0.  Messmer, f and  Dr.  P.  Haberlin,t 
Privatdozent  of  Philosophy  in  Basel,  who  had  previously, 
while  Seminary  Director  of  the  Thurganischen  Lehrerbil- 
dungsanstalt  in  Kreuzlingen,  extensively  practiced  the  new 
pedagogic  method.  Pastors  who  have  entered  the  literary 
field  in  favor  of  psychoanalysis  are  A.  Waldburger  ||  in 
Ragaz,  the  Calvinist,  Th.  JohnerJ  a conservative  theologian, 
and  Adolf  Keller  in  Zurich. 

Two  or  three  years  ago  the  reproach  was  hurled  at  the 
psychoanalyst  that  aside  from  Freud  and  Bleuler,  whose  im- 
portance no  one  disputed,  no  university  teacher  had  joined  the 

* Meumann,  Padag.  Jahresber.  1910,  63rd  Year,  Leipzig,  p.  134. 

t Messmer,  Die  Psychoanalyse  u.  i.  pad.  Bedeutung.  Berner  Semin- 
arblatter,  V,  Part  9 (1911). 

+ Hiiberlin,  Sexualgespenster.  Sexualprobleme,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  96- 
106 -(1912). 

||  Waldburger,  Psyehanalyt.  Seelsorge  u.  Moralpadagogik.  (Prot. 
Monatshefte,  XIII  (1909),  pp.  110-114.  A defence  of  my  article  which 
appeared  in  the  same  journal.) 

If  Johner,  Die  Psychoanalyse  im  bernischen  Kant.  Pfarrverein.  Der 
Kirchenfreund  (Basel),  XLIV  (1910)  No.  24. 


14 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


new  school.  To-day  this  criticism,  which  many  consider  unen- 
durable, has  already  disappeared.  A constantly  increasing 
number  of  high  school  teachers,  in  spite  of  a threatened  boy- 
cott and  much  derision,  have  joined  the  outlawed  psychoan- 
alytic association.  The  following  are  analysts:  the  psychi- 
atrist of  Bern  University,  Prof,  von  Speyr,  the  neurologist  of 
Harvard  University,  Prof.  James  J.  Putnam,  a man  of  wide 
experience  and  great  philosophical  attainments,  further,  the 
professors  of  psychiatry,  Ernest  Jones  (Toronto),  Adolf  Meyer 
(Baltimore),  August  Hoch  (New  York),  Davidson  (Toronto), 
Jelliffe  (New  York),  White  (Washington).  Among  the  psy- 
chologists is  the  first  college  president  to  acknowledge  Freud, 
the  influential  founder  of  experimental  religious  psychology,  G. 
Stanley  Hall;  among  investigators  of  speech,  P.  C.  Prescott, 
Professor  of  the  History  of  English  Literature  in  New  York 
and  H.  Sperber  in  Upsala;  among  the  representatives  of  in- 
ternal medicine,  Prof.  R.  Morichau-Beauchant  in  Poitiers.  A 
large  number  of  other  investigators,  especially  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  accept  psychoanalysis  in  its  important  points. 
This  rapid  spread  of  a theory  which  had  such  a tremendous 
resistance  against  it,  within  a very  few  years,  is  nothing  short  of 
marvelous. 

In  spite  of  the  large  number  of  publications,  it  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  the  literary  work  has  not  kept  pace  with  the 
practical  and  theoretical  advance.  Very  many  results  espe- 
cially important  for  pedagogy  are  scarcely  touched  upon  in  psy- 
choanalytic journals.  Of  the  analytic  educational  work  with 
pupils,  who,  without  being  really  ill,  still  because  of  inner  in- 
hibitions, make  themselves  and  their  families  unhappy,  there  is 
almost  no  mention  anywhere.  How  the  hitherto  unobserved 
impressions  of  childhood  control  the  whole  later  development 
of  the  normal  individual,  even  to  the  peculiarity  of  his  style, 
his  choice  of  a vocation  and  of  a wife,  as  well  as  the  most  insig- 
nificant subordinate  affairs,  finds  too  little  discussion.  The 
enormous  loss  of  love  for  fellowmen  and  of  power  for  work 
which  many  individuals  suffer,  mostly  without  knowing  it,  as 
a result  of  unfavorable  educational  influences,  have  not,  up  to 


APPLICATION  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 


15 


the  present  time,  been  given  their  proper  weight  in  the  litera- 
ture. I gave  a few  examples  of  this  in  my  article,  ‘ ‘ Applica- 
tions of  Psychoanalysis  in  Pedagogy  and  Pastoral  Care” 
(“  Anwendungen  der  Psychoanalyse  in  der  Padagogik  und 
Seelsorge”  *).  I described  cases  of  untruthfulness,  klepto- 
mania, tormenting  of  animals,  destructive  rage,  aversion  to 
work,  dislike  of  certain  foods,  meaningless  gestures,  portentous 
corporal  punishment,  withholding  of  sexual  enlightenment, 
eccentric  gaits,  pathological  hate,  hysterical  physical  defects  as 
a pedagogic  problem,  creation  of  hobgoblins  out  of  the  uncon- 
scious in  choice  of  a husband  or  wife,  unhappy  marriages  as 
result  of  psychic  traumata  of  youth,  religious  abnormalities 
from  similar  causes.  From  these  experiences  chosen  at  ran- 
dom, I drew  the  conclusion : Countless  numbers  of  persons  who 
bring  heart-breaking  grief  to  their  parents  and  other  people 
and  cannot  help  bringing  it  because  they  are  under  neurotic 
obsessions,  can  by  the  aid  of  analysis  be  changed  into  agreeable 
useful  individuals.!  The  proof  for  the  correctness  of  this  as- 
sertion which  ought  to  have  emphasized  the  difficulty  of  the 
analytic  work  more  strongly,  I hope  to  afford  in  the  present 
book. 

Corresponding  to  the  external  modifications  in  the  psycho- 
analytic movement,  there  are  internal  changes  which  are  much 
too  little  noticed  by  those  not  intimately  associated  with  it. 
Many  a justifiable  reproach  from  the  side  of  its  opponents  ap- 
plies to  the  analysis  as  once  practiced  but  not  to  the  present 
method.  It  is  obvious  that  so  new  and  penetrating  a method  of 
investigation  was  and  is  subject  to  errors.  That  which  once 
appeared  to  the  astonished  gaze  of  the  discoverer  as  evident 
certainty,  discloses  here  and  there  to  closer  observation  other 
causal  connections.  Where  from  a number  of  coincident  re- 
sults, a comprehensive  principle  was  derived,  later,  contradic- 
tory observations,  setting  the  earlier  formula  against  a new  one, 
may  compel  a hypothesis  embracing  both  the  old  and  the  newest 
knowledge.  This  transition  is  common  to  all  sciences  and  it 

•Imago,  I,  pp.  56-82  (1912). 

t P.  77. 


16 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


would  not  be  just  to  forge  weapons  against  the  method  from 
this  adaptation  to  the  progress  of  experience.  I am  not  at  all 
averse  to  voicing  the  opinion  that  psychoanalytic  science  has 
very  much  to  learn  and  will  learn  from  the  observation  of 
earnest  pedagogues  and  any  critical  co-worker  who  discloses 
errors  and  ambiguities  will  be  most  welcome. 

I shall  name  some  of  the  most  important  transformations 
which  the  analytic  theory  and  technique  has  undergone  since 
its  inception : The  theory  that  the  repression  of  an  affectful 
idea  into  the  unconscious  was  always  accomplished  by  a pain- 
ful, shocking  experience.  The  shock  or  trauma  theory  was 
given  up  in  favor  of  the  conception  that  everything  is  of  im- 
portance, the  repression  of  ideas  or  phantasies.  Where  once 
the  emphasis  lay  on  the  sexual  trauma,  the  unconscious  attach- 
ment to  the  parents  was  found  to  be  the  chief  cause  of  the 
neuroses  and  of  other  conditions  of  dependence  on  the  uncon- 
scious which  influenced  life.  The  sexual  theory,  previously  the 
greatest  stumbling  block,  underwent  a radical  change,  since, 
not  only  the  assertion  of  the  causation  of  every  neurosis  in  a 
sexual  irritation  in  the  ordinary  sense,  was  abandoned,  but  also, 
the  term  sexuality  received  a great  amplification,  so  that  the 
poorly  oriented  reader  scarcely  understands  any  longer  what 
the  analyst  means  by  the  word  and  strikes  wrong  interpreta- 
tions. Where  at  that  time,  one  considered  the  “abreaction,” 
the  affectful  “speaking  out,”  as  the  healing  agent,  to-day  we 
know  that  the  transference  of  repressed  wishes  upon  the 
analyst,  forms,  at  least  in  severe  cases,  an  indispensable  con- 
dition of  the  cure.  Where  in  the  first  period,  the  analytic 
attack  was  directed  at  the  symptom,  now,  it  is,  in  a certain 
sense,  neglected,  in  order  to  turn  all  attention  to  the  resistance 
against  analyst  and  analysis.  If  at  first,  one  aims  only  at  the 
elimination  of  the  internal  conflict,  he  presently  strives  for 
independent  adaptation  to  reality  which  comes  from  the  over- 
coming of  the  internal  two-sidedness,  the  turning  of  the 
patient’s  mental  forces  toward  reality  in  accordance  with  the 
limitations  of  his  personal  peculiarities,  and  thus  rounds  out 
the  analytic  educational  work  by  assisting  conservatively  self- 


CRITICISM  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 


17 


education  Freud’s  fight  against  the  scientifically  and  ethi- 
cally reprehensible  “wild  psychoanalysis,”*  which  expects 
cure  from  promiscuous  sexual  gratification  without  regard  to 
scruples  or  love,  has  also  raised  the  moral  standing  of  the 
analysis. 

By  all  these  modifications,  which  are  due  in  only  the  slight- 
est measure  to  hostile  criticism,  almost  entirely  to  psycho- 
analytic experience,  the  agreement  with  traditional  views  and 
especially  with  prevailing  pedagogic  ideas,  has  been  essentially 
increased.  In  1907,  Isserlin  explained:  “If  we  emphasize 
the  disposition  somewhat  more  and  deprive  the  trauma  t of  the 
decisive  role  which  it  would  play  in  the  causation  of  hysteria, 
the  contending  opinions  would  have  come  closely  together.  ’ ’ % 
We  have  seen  that  the  original  historical  and  psychological 
chasm  which  seemed  unabridgable  in  the  beginning,  became 
narrowed  also  at  other  points.  He  who  travels  in  an  unknown 
land,  at  first  notices  the  new  and  strange ; only  gradually  does 
the  ‘ ‘ partout  comme  chez  nous  ’ ’ come  into  its  rights. 

It  would  now  be  my  task  to  describe  how  the  critics  met  and 
accompanied  the  forward  march  of  psychoanalysis.  To  my 
satisfaction,  Bleuler  has  performed  this  necessary  task  in  his 
discerning  article,  “Die  Psychoanalyse  Freuds.”  The  battle 
raged  in  the  most  diverse  affective  states;  from  perfect  neu- 
trality to  furious  insult,  to  boycott,  indeed  in  one  instance, 
even  to  denunciation  before  the  public,  in  which  scarcely  an 
insinuation  was  omitted.  As  a strange  cultural  curiosity,  one 
example  may  be  mentioned  without  anger  or  intent  to  complain 
or  apply  for  the  martyr’s  crown.  I can  mention  it  with  all 
the  greater  equanimity  since  it  only' reacted  in  favor  of  psycho- 
analysis. On  the  15th  of  December,  1911,  a neurologist  in 
Zurich,  specialist  in  electrotherapy,  gave  a public  lecture  in 

* Freud  has  from  the  beginning  fought  against  this  with  all  pos- 
sible vigor,  for  example,  Kl.  Schriften  I,‘  p.  109  (1895),  pp.  137  ff.,  199, 
230;  II,  pp.  14,  34. 

f M.  Isserlin  tlber  Jungs  “Psychologie  der  Dementia  praecox  und 
die  Anwendung  Freudscher  Forschungsmaximen  in  der  Psychopathol- 
ogie.”  Zentralblatt  fur  Nervenheilkunde  u.  Psychiatrie.  1907,  p.  341. 

% Jahrbuch  II,  pp.  623-730. 


18 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


which  he  pictured  the  objeetionableness  and  perversity  of 
psychoanalysis.  To  this  end,  he  drew  a caricature  which 
estranged  even  non-analysts.  In  order  to  show  what  kind  of 
a business  an  analysis  was,  he  picked  out  of  Freud’s  “Frag- 
ment of  Hysteria- Analysis,  ” that  is,  from  an  article  intended 
only  for  the  medical  profession,  one  of  the  most  delicate  por- 
tions and  described  to  the  public,  among  which  were  many 
young  boys  and  girls,  how  Freud  discussed  coitus  in  os.  One 
can  imagine  the  indignation  of  some,  the  joy  of  others.  What 
would  that  speaker  have  said  if  one  had  pictured  orally  to  a 
totally  unprepared  audience  containing  many  very  young  in- 
dividuals, in  a voice  of  moral  indignation,  the  things  which  that 
physician  did  to  women  and  girls  in  his  gynecological  practice  ? 
And  in  this,  it  would  not  be  a question  of  perversions  which 
would  be  exposed  to  the  phantasy  of  persons  half-developed 
sexually.  The  refusal  of  a public  debate  by  the  analytic  side 
led  to  a violent  contest  in  the  daily  press,  the  end  result  of 
which  was  favorable  to  psychoanalysis  in  that  the  denounced 
literature  was  really  devoured  and  the  rush  to  the  analysts  in- 
creased wherever  possible. 

Since  Bleuler’s  article  in  defence  of  psychoanalysis,  there 
has  appeared  only  one  important  criticism  of  psychoanalysis : 
that  of  Arthur  Kronfeld.*  In  its  depth  of  thought,  neutral 
reserve  and  repeatedly,  indeed,  in  its  honest  admiration  of 
Freud,  it  ©laces  all  other  discussions  in  the  shade.  Still,  it  is 
one  with  its  predecessors  in  that  it  does  not  trouble  itself  in  the 
least  about  the  fundamental  facts  underlying  psychoanalysis 
and  avoids  a priori  empiric  tests.  The  hypotheses  and  theories 
which  Freud  and  his  pupils  have  been  compelled  to  believe  from 
the  phenomena  observed,  it  puts  under  the  head  of  “general 
psychological  foundations”  and  thus  stands  the  whole  system 
on  its  head.  How  would  a representation  of  the  Wundtian 
psychology  work,  which  began,  say  with  the  principle  of  the 

* tiber  die  psychologischen  Theorien  Freuds  und  verwandte  An- 
schauungen,”  Arehiv  fur  die  gesamte  Psvchologie,  Vol.  XXII  (1911), 
pp.  130-248.  While  this  book  was  in  press,  an  excellent  anticriticism 
against  Kronfeld  by  Gaston  Rosenstein  appeared  (Jahrbuch  IV  (1913), 
pp.  741-798). 


CRITICS 


19 


aim  of  heterogony,  and  from  there  went  backwards  but  was 
promptly  silent  every  time  Wundt  disclosed  a psychological 
fact  determined  empirically  or  proposed  an  experiment? 
The  effect  would  plainly  be  similar  to  that  in  a cinematographic 
production  if  a dramatic  scene  was  produced  backwards  by 
reversing  the  film.  All  causal  connections  would  be  destroyed, 
the  whole  would  be  incomprehensible.  So  proceeds  Kronfeld 
with  the  analysis.  Also  the  most  everyday  observations,  for 
example,  the  transposition  of  an  affect  from  one  idea  to  an- 
other, he  denies  without  going  to  the  trouble  of  a test.  Like  all 
the  hostile  critics,  Kronfeld  seems  to  suffer  from  a strange 
fear  of  the  facts,  an  “ontophobia.”  Hence  his  industry,  his 
learning  and  his  sharpsightedness  serve  no  purpose,  the  dis- 
cussion is  hopeless  though  one  would  gladly  meet  so  chivalrous 
an  opponent. 

In  the  following  statements,  I shall  give  careful  attention  to 
the  voices  of  the  critics.  Especially  shall  I consider  the  expres- 
sions of  Alt,  Aschaffenburg,  0.  Binswanger,  Dubois,  0.  Fischer, 
F.  W.  Foerster,  Friedlander,  Heilbronner,  Hoche,  Janet, 
Isserlin,  Klien,  Kraepelin,  Kronfeld,  Lehmann,  Mendel,  Moll, 
Nacke,  Oppenheim,  Morton  Prince,  Siemerling,  Skliar,  Vogt, 
Wiegandt,  Ziehen.  I hope  that  no  important  argument  of 
these  opponents  will  escape  me.  The  mockers  among  the  op- 
ponents, I would  ask  to  recall  that  old  saying  which  Goethe 
gives  in  his  “Faust”:  “We  are  accustomed  to  men  jeering 
at  that  which  they  do  not  understand.” 

The  many  other  authors  who,  after  proving  for  themselves, 
have  broken  lances  in  favor  of  the  violently  opposed  theory, 
should  be  considered  with  the  same  precision. 

If  the  objection  be  raised  that  pedagogy  ought  to  wait  in 
silence  until  the  physicians  have  solved  the  problem  of  psycho- 
analysis, two  facts  should  be  remembered:  psychoanalysis  is 
also  important  for  normal  individuals ; these  are  of  no  concern 
to  the  physician  but  of  much  concern  to  the  educator.  Fur- 
ther, this  professional  quarrel  of  the  physicians  may  not  be 
settled  for  decades ; meanwhile,  however,  the  great  new  educa- 
tional problems  are  waiting  and  can  n,o  longer  be  put  off.  The 


20 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


scientifically  trained  pedagogue  is  just  as  good  an  expert  in  re- 
gard to  the  child ’s  mind  and  the  influencing  of  this  function  as 
the  physician  is  for  the  sick  child.  Therefore,  the  teacher  has 
a right  to  his  own  judgment  and  the  stimulating  encourage- 
ment of  Freud  as  well  as  all  other  competent  analysts  can  only 
strengthen  him  in  his  undertaking. 

From  our  historical  sketch,  we  may  now  derive  the  definition : 
Psychoanalysis  is  a scientifically  grounded  method  devoted  to 
neurotic  and  mentally  deranged  persons,  as  well  as  to  normal 
individuals,  which  seeks  by  the  collection  and  interpretation  of 
associations,  with  the  avoidance  of  suggestion  and  hypnosis, 
to  investigate  and  influence  the  instinctive  forces  and  content 
of  mental  life  lying  below  the  threshold  of  consciousness. 

Whether  or  not  the  claims  expressed  in  this  definition  are 
justified,  we  have  now  to  determine. 


PART  I 


THE  THEORY  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  CONCEPTION  OF  AN 
UNCONSCIOUS 

We  may  now  approach  the  question:  what  are  we  to  think 
of  subliminal  mental  processes?  Are  there  in  general  sub- 
conscious psychic  facts?  Does  an  unconscious  exist  and  is  it 
scientifically  conceivable  ? 

The  prevailing  psychology  is  not  very  kindly  disposed  to- 
ward the  unconscious.  True,  its  existence  is  seldom  disputed. 
At  the  most,  some  representatives  of  the  psychophysical  mater- 
ialism, as  for  example,  Ziehen,  deny  its  existence.  The  psy- 
chiatrist named  considers  it  in  all  seriousness  as  doubtful 
whether  all  the  very  complicated  acts  of  hypnotised  persons  are 
not  without  parallel  psychical  processes  and  thereby  readily 
leads  us  to  the  standpoint  of  old  Cartesius  who  denied  animals 
all  mental  experiences  and  considered  them  “creaking  ma- 
chines.” * It  cannot  surprise  us  that  this  hypothesis  of  psy- 
choanalysis receives  little  favor  and  is  explained  without  trial 
as  “nonsense.”!  The  other  psychologists  allow  the  validity 
of  the  unconscious.  Indeed,  Th.  Lipps  considers  consciousness 
as  such,  as  a passive,  indifferent,  in  itself  unimportant  by- 
product of  unconscious  processes.!  This  appreciation,  how- 

* Th.  Ziehen,  Leitfaden  der  physiolog.  Psychologie  (9th  ed.,  Jena, 
1911,  p.  259). 

f Ziehen,  in  a psychiatric  meeting,  flatly  explained  the  Freudian 
theories  as  nonsense.  The  printed  report  to  which  we  owe  this  com- 
munication, neglected  to  say  whether  Ziehen  gave  reasons  for  his  opin- 
ion. 

X E.  v.  Hartmann,  Die  moderne  Psychologie,  Leipzig,  1901,  p.  99. 

21 


22 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


ever,  is  made  of  less  value  by  the  fact  that  Lipps  does  not  know 
how  to  render  the  unconscious  accessible  to  scientific  observa- 
tion. We  poor  psychologists  stand  before  the  screen  of  un- 
consciousness without  any  hope  of  learning  to  know  the  picture- 
making  machinery.  Wundt  uses  us  a little  less  roughly.  He 
does  not  lift  the  subliminal,  at  least  at  first,  to  so  high  a rank 
before  establishing  our  helplessness  in  comprehending  it. 
“Our  knowledge  of  the  elements  which  have  become  uncon- 
scious has  to  do  with  nothing  more  than  the  possibility  of 
memory.”  * 

Besides  denying  the  existence  of  the  unconscious  or  scien- 
tific recognition  of  it,  psychology  presents  a considerable  con- 
fusion of  terms  which  we  must  consider  in  order  not  to  in- 
crease it. 

In  order  to  fix  the  concept  of  the  unconscious,  we  proceed 
from  that  of  the  conscious  and  consciousness.  But  does  not  the 
same  confusion  prevail  here? 

The  psychologists  make  it  easy  by  explaining : one  can  only 
experience  consciousness,  not  describe  t or  define  it.J  Against 
these  opinions,  Durr  maintains  with  justice  that  everything 
which  science  discusses  must  permit  of  a definition.||  Wundt 
also  saw  himself  forced  later  to  the  formulation  of  a definition. 

“Consciousness”  is  derived  from  “conscious”  which  word 
is  used  in  reference  to  an  object  or  to  the  objectivated  subject, 
for  example : the  ‘ ‘ conscious  ’ ’ matter ; “ an  idea  becomes  clearly 
conscious,”  “I  am  conscious.” 

Both  meanings  occur  in  derivatives.  Whoever  is  “con- 
scious” exercises  a function,  for  example,  a perception,  an  idea. 
In  reference  to  the  subject,  the  expression  “conscious”  always 
has  an  active  meaning,  to  an  object,  a passive  one. 

In  the  mental  experience,  as  also  in  “knowing,”  we  are  ac- 
customed to  distinguish  subject,  object  and  function.  The 

* Wundt,  Grundrias  der  Psychologie,  p.  243. 

t Kirchner,  Kateehismus  der  Psychologie,  Leipzig,  1883,  p.  52. 

$ Wundt,  Grundziige  der  phys.  Psychologie.  2 (1881)  II,  p.  195. 

||  Durr,  Bewusstsein  u.  Unbewusstes  in  der  “Tiefenpsychologie.” 
Grundfragen  der  Psychologie  u.  Padagogik  II,  p.  37. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


23 


psychologic  reflection  has  elaborated  the  concept  of  conscious- 
ness in  each  of  these  three  directions : 

1.  As  subject  concept,  it  denotes  the  subject  of  the  mental 
life.*  As,  for  example,  in  the  phrase,  “the  man  or  the  mind 
is  consciousness. J ’ f This  latter  can  therefore  appear  as  acting. 
I mention  the  expression  which  has  become  old-style,  because 
from  it,  in  the  expression  “the  unconscious”  or  “the  un- 
consciousness,” important  counterparts  have  developed. 

2.  As  function  concept,  the  term  “consciousness”  has  very 
many  meanings.  Some  of  these  meanings  are:  (a)  as  “con- 
nection of  the  mental  images.”  According  to  Wundt,  the 
meaning  of  the  term  would  be  that  it  expressed  that  general 
union  of  mental  processes  from  which  the  individual  images 
arise  as  narrower  combinations.  $ According  to  this  definition 
there  prevails  in  deep  sleep  or  in  a fainting  spell,  a state  of 
unconsciousness,  something  which  Wundt  admits.  Neverthe- 
less, an  isolated  sensation  in  sleep,  for  example  thirst,  or  a 
simple  dream-picture  not  connected  with  other  psychic  images, 
would  be  unconscious,  while  a dream  scene  would  be  conscious. 
This  use  of  language  will  therefore  not  enlighten  us. 

(b)  Consciousness  = “ the  totality  of  mental  affairs  belonging 
to  an  individual”  (Witasek).|| 

(e)  Consciousness  — the  inner  outcropping  of  our  sensations, 
ideas  and  emotions  (Hoffding).I 

(d)  Consciousness  = “ All  actual  ideas”  (Herbart)  § or  “the 
comprehension  of  objects”  (Durr) .** 

(e)  Consciousness  = “the  knowledge  concerning  the  existence 
of  all  or  a part  of  psychic  affairs  belonging  to  an  individual ; in 
general,  the  knowledge  about  all  the  psychic  and  also  physical 

* Same,  p.  39. 

t Rehrnke,  Die  Seele  des  Menschen,  Leipzig,  1902,  p.  43. 
t Wundt,  Grundriss,  p.  238. 

||  S.  Witasek,  Grundlinien  der  Psychologie,  p.  60. 

II H.  Hoffding,  Psychologie,  2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1893,  p.  95. 

§ Herbart,  Psychologie  als  Wiss.  Samtl.  W.  W.  ( Kehrbach ) . Vol.  V 
(Langensalza  1890),  p.  193. 

**  Durr,  Bewusstsein  u.  Unbewusstes  in  der  “Tiefenpsyehologie.” 
Grundfragen  der  Psychologie  u.  Padagogik  II,  p.  39. 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


24- 

objects  of  which  the  individual  thinks,  of  which  he  is  accord- 
ingly conscious.  ’ ’ * According  to  this  condition,  a knowledge 
about  mental  experiences  or  content  would  be  necessary,  a 
self -observation,  an  “inner  sense.” 

We  add  the  description  of  Lotze : 

(f)  Consciousness  = Waking  state. f Therewith  all  dreams 
fwould  be  unconscious,  no  matter  how  vividly  I may  experience 
them  in  myself  nor  how  exactly  I know  them,  nor  how  power- 
fully the  selfconsciousness  appeared  in  them.  In  favor  of 
Lotze ’s  statement  speaks  the  fact  that  one  is  not  accustomed  to 
attribute  consciousness  to  persons  overcome  with  sleep. 

In  contradiction  to  this,  one  speaks  of  a lowering  of  conscious- 
ness, indeed  of  a suspension  of  consciousness,  where  a passion- 
ate excitement  prevents  our  knowing  what  we  are  doing  (Ul- 
rici).$  From  this,  follows, 

(g)  Consciousness  = Waking  state  in  every  relation  free  from 
extreme  passion. 

(h)  Consciousness  = Waking  state  in  normal  mental  activity. 
The  last  description  leads  us  already  to  the  third  kind  of  elabo- 
ration of  concept. 

3.  As  object  concept,  consciousness  is  differentiated  from  the 
process  of  knowing  in  the  following  expressions: 

(a)  Consciousness  = Content  of  knowledge  or  what  is  known. 
In  this  sense,  we  speak  of  a moral  or  religious  consciousness,  in 
which  of  course,  we  think  not  of  a mere  fund  of  knowledge  but 
of  an  affectful  experience  and  inner  reaction. 

(b)  Consciousness  = Existence  in  the  self  perception  or  in  the 
self  consciousness.  (Similarly  Leibniz  ).||  Against  this  limi- 
tation, Durr  justly  remarks:  “A  child  which  sees  houses, 
trees,  animals  and  people,  also  has  consciousness,  although  it 
cannot  yet  state  psychological  considerations  concerning  his 
perceptions  and  his  other  mental  life.”  If 

* Witasek,  p.  61. 

t H.  Lotze,  Grundzuge  der  Psychologie,  Leipzig,  1894,  p.  81. 
t H.  Ulrici,  Leib  u.  Seele.  Leipzig,  1866,  p.  277. 

||  Wundt,  Grundz.  d.  ph.  Psych.  II,  p.  348. 

If  Durr,  p.  39. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL  PARALLELISM 


25 


Thus  the  terminologies  intersect  one  another  in  a confusing 
whirl.  For  etymological  and  practical  reasons,  I define 
consciousness  as  the  existence  of  any  kind  of  psychic  phe- 
nomena. Thus  I assign  the  dream  and  the  delirium  in 
which  there  is  often  so  strong  selfconsciousness  and  perception 
to  the  conscious  activities  as  well  as  incoherent  dream  frag- 
ments. 

It  is  now  not  hard  for  us  to  mark  off  the  different  concepts 
of  the  unconscious  against  those  of  the  conscious. 

For  our  purpose,  we  distinguish  the  philosophical  definitions, 
thus  the  metaphysical  of  a Schelling,  Schopenhauer,  v.  Hart- 
mann, the  theological  of  an  I.  H.  Fichte  and  Ulrici,  the  epis- 
temological construction  of  an  Ed.  v.  Hartmann.* 

Here,  we  have  only  to  deal  with  the  unconscious  as  a psycho- 
logical concept,  that  is,  such  an  one  as  results  from  a scientific 
elaboration  of  psychic  phenomena.  Its  logical  foundations  are 
to  be  sought  in  psychophysics  and  pure  psychology. 

The  psychophysical  parallelism  assumes  that  psychic  pro- 
cesses correspond  to  excitations  of  the  central  nervous  system. 
It  denies  the  view  “that  the  phenomena  of  consciousness  may 
be  derived  from  objective  events  or  inversely,  the  objective 
results  from  states  of  consciousness.  ’ ’ f Since  among  conscious 
phenomena,  connections  are  missing,  that  principle  can  be 
carried  through  only  under  the  presupposition  of  unconscious 
phenomena.  This  is  especially  strikingly  the  case  in  the  recol- 
lection of  memories.  What  has  become  of  the  conscious  con- 
tent in  the  moment  of  forgetting  ? Does  it  remain  in  existence 
as  Herbart  % assumes  or  does  it  only  leave  behind  a disposition 
to  its  recurrence?  ||  In  any  case,  however,  there  existed  a 
complex  of  conditions  beyond  consciousness  to  recall  a con- 
scious content. 

Or  when  a minimal  stimulus  in  the  central  nervous  system 
slowly  increases,  goes  beyond  the  threshold  of  consciousness, 

* v.  Hartmann,  Die  moderne  Psychologic,  p.  79. 

t G.  F.  Lipps,  Grundriss  der  Psychophysik.  Leipzig,  1909,  p.  25  f. 

t Herbart,  Vol.  V,  p.  338  ff. 

||  Witasek,  p.  54  f. 


26 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


grows  strong  and  slowly  diminishes,  should  then  only  the  strong- 
est stimuli  produce  a psychic  accompaniment  ? 

Unconscious  processes  or  those  which  have  become  uncon- 
scious accompany  all  perception  and  cognition,  thought  and 
volition..  We  do  not  know,  for  example,  without  psychological 
instruction  why  and  in  what  way  we  have  attained  to  an  idea 
of  space  and  location  in  space.  We  think  in  concepts,  the  full 
extent  of  which  is  not  present  with  us.*  We  decide  according 
to  values,  the  foundation  and  coacting  motives  of  which  in 
great  part  escape  us.  The  same  is  the  case  with  instinct,  time, 
many  habits,  actions  which  have  become  mechanical,  mysterious 
feelings,  dreams,  etc.f 

Experimentally,  an  unconscious  was  first  proven  by  the  hyp 
notic  investigation.  Forel,  for  example,  argued : ‘ ‘ Often  we 
are  unable  to  recall  a familiar  name  and  just  so  much  the  less, 
the  more  we  seek  it.  . . . In  hypnosis,  such  interpolations 
and  omissions  are  intentionally  brought  about  by  suggestion 
and  the  conscious  part  of  the  brain  activity  is  constantly  dis- 
placed by  the  temporary  results  of  suggestion  executed  in  un- 
conscious ways.”  % By  well  conceived  hypnotic  procedure,  the 
first  psychologist  outside  the  Freudian  school  to  demonstrate 
unconscious  functions  in  normal  mental  life  was  Narziss  Ach 
and  this  in  reaction  experiments.  He  formulated  the  state- 
ment : ‘ 4 It  is  the  rule  that  the  effective  goal-idea,  upon  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  concrete  idea  of  reference,  does  not  appear  in 
consciousness  as  such  but  nevertheless  exercises  a determining 
influence.  . . . These  peculiar  activities  proceeding  from  the 
goal-idea,  related  to  the  idea  of  reference,  we  designate  as 
the  determining  tendencies.  ” ||  Perhaps  many  will  take  ex- 

* Th.  Lipps,  Leitf.  d.  Psycholog.  Leipzig,  1903,  p.  40. 

f Hofi'ding,  pp.  94-112. 

$ A.  Forel,  Der  Hvpnotismus,  seine  Bedeutung  und  seine  Handhabung, 
Stuttgart,  1889,  p.  55. 

||  Narziss  Ach,  liber  die  Willenstatigkeit  und  das  Denken.  Gottingen, 
1905,  p.  224  f.  Ach  lays  great  stress  on  his  priority  in  the  discovery 
of  this  “determination”  (fiber  den  Willensakt  und  das  Temperament, 
Leipzig,  1912,  p.  286),  but  he  does  not  perceive  the  immense  import  of 
his  find. 


DEFINITIONS  OF  UNCONSCIOUS 


rt 


ception  to  calling  an  activity,  a tendency.  Then  he  will  prefer 
the  definition:  “These  mental  attitudes  acting  in  the  uncon- 
scious (=  non-conscious) , proceeding  from  the  significance  of 
the  goal-ideas,  directed  toward  the  approaching  idea  of  refer- 
ence, which  actuate  a spontaneous  appearance  of  the  determin- 
ing idea,  we  designate  as  determining  tendencies.”  * Another 
pupil  of  Kiilpe,  K.  Koffka,  speaks  of  non-conscious  reproduc- 
tion, and  determining  tendencies  which  have  an  influence  on 
the  course  of  ideas. t Concerning  the  latter,  he  remarks:  “On 
one  side,  determining  tendencies  may  call  forth  conscious  ideas, 
on  the  other  side,  thoughts  liberated  termining  tendencies.  If 
we  think  of  the  existence  of  a tendency  before  its  realization : 
it  is  then  a thought  and  this  would  have  to  occasion  the  like 
tendency  to  which  it  owed  its  origin.  This  becoming  conscious 
of  the  tendency  thus  retroacts  on  its  force,  the  tendency  is  there- 
by strengthened.  ’ ’ % Max  Offner,  who  collects  in  his  study  of 
the  memory  the  results  of  the  experimental  psychology,  arrives 
at  the  same  conclusion : ‘ ‘ The  assumption  of  these  subliminal 
psychic  processes,  this  unconscious  but  similar  to  conscious  men- 
tal activity,  is  not  to  be  avoided  if  we  would  not  consider  the 
conscious  psychic  events  as  a mere  succession  and  juxtaposition 
of  experiences  but  would  bring  them  into  an  inner  relationship 
as  we  inwardly  associate  the  strokes  of  the  clock  with  the  hours 
by  the  knowledge  that  they  are  caused  by  the  action  of  a 
mechanism  built  and  acting  according  to  fixed  laws  which  is 
separated  from  our  perception.  Liebmann  points  out  an  ex- 
cellent analogy : ‘ ‘ There  are  dramas,  ’ ’ he  says,  ‘ ‘ which  would 
remain  absolutely  unintelligible  without  what  goes  on  behind 
the  scenes.  To  these  dramas,  belongs  the  human  mental  life. 
What  takes  place  on  the  stage  of  clear  consciousness  are  only 
broken  fragments  and  shreds  of  the  personal  mental  life.  It 
would  be  incomprehensible,  indeed  impossible,  without  what 

* P.  228. 

f K.  Koffka,  Zur  Analyse  der  Vorstellungen  und  ihrer  Gesetze,  Leip- 
zig, 1912,  p.  299  ff.  Still  nearer  comes  Freud:  G.  F.  Lipps,  Weltan- 
schauung u.  Bildungsideal,  Leipzig  u.  Berlin,  1911,  page  155. 

$ P.  316. 


28 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


transpires  behind  the  curtain,  that  is,  without  unconscious  pro- 
cesses. ” “ For  considering  these  unconscious  processes  as  some- 
thing not  really  unconscious  but  only  as  conscious  in  a limited 
degree,  as  carrying  a ‘differential’  from  consciousness,  obser- 
vation affords  us  no  justification.  Only  the  unjustified  pre- 
supposition that  psychic  and  conscious  are  interchangeable 
terms  is  the  occasion  of  that  empirically  unsubstantiated  asser- 
tion. ’ ’ * Thus  with  Ach,  the  unconscious  has  obtained  en- 
trance to  the  experimental  psychology,  and  indeed  not  only  as 
a general  explanatory  principle  but  as  an  empirically  demons- 
trated fact.  To  this  state  of  affairs,  I expressly  call  the  atten- 
tion of  those  who  still  continue  to  deny  the  unconscious  as  an 
unscientific  concept. 

The  concept  of  the  unconscious  limited  to  the  causal  rela- 
tionship of  psychic  phenomena  now  receives  different  interpre- 
tations. Many  conceive  of  it  as  purely  physiological  (Jodi, 
Kiilpe).  Proceeding  from  the  supposition  that  sensations, 
ideas  and  emotions  are  conceivable  only  as  having  happened, 
thus  as  consciously  experienced,  they  explain  the  condition  of 
the  unconsciousness  of  these  phenomena  as  a contradiction  and 
consider  “conscious”  and  “psychic”  simply  as  identical.  So 
far  then  as  they  admit  that  this  physiological  unconscious  in- 
fluences the  conscious,  they  destroy  the  psychophysical  parallel- 
ism and  thereby  saw  off  the  bough  on  which  they  are  sitting. 
They  deliver  themselves  over  to  materialism  which  they  con- 
sider as  long  abandoned  and  no  longer  tenable.  Moreover,  they 
do  not  explain  the  pretended  difference  between  brain  processes 
with  and  without  consciousness  and  likewise  leave  the  constant 
interaction  between  conscious  and  unconscious  incomprehen- 
sible (Hoffding).f 

Again,  many  consider  the  unconscious  as  a “psychic  disposi- 
tion of  unknown  kind.”  This  is  especially  true  of  Wundt  who 
considers  it  probable  “that  the  psychological  condition  of  the 
ideas  in  the  unconscious  stand  in  a similar  relation  to  their  con- 
scious purpose  as  the  accompanying  physiological  processes  or 

* M.  Offner,  Das  GedSchtnis,  2d  ed.  Berlin,  1911,  p.  135. 

f Hoffding,  p.  107. 


THEODOR  LIPPS 


29 


conditions  hold  to  one  another.  ” * Hoffding  speaks  cautiously 
and  conservatively  of  psychic  analogues  which  constitute  the 
unconscious,  the  nature  of  which  he  leaves  entirely  undeter- 
mined, and  of  which  he  demands  only  that  they  render  possible 
both  the  origin  of  conscious  phenomena  and  the  relationship 
between  conscious  and  unconscious  activity.  He  leaves  it  un- 
decided whether  one  may  speak  of  an  unconscious  mental  life. t 
Theodor  Lipps,  who  has  broken  so  many  lances  in  defence  of  the 
reality  of  the  unconscious,  says:  “Since  unconscious  sensa- 
tions and  ideas  are  the  same  regarding  real  processes  as  the 
conscious,  so  they  are  subject  to  the  same  rule  of  law.  They 
use  a similar  mode  of  action.  On  the  other  hand,  we  may  only 
speak  of  unconscious  sensations  and  ideas,  where  psychic  ac- 
tivities, that  is  ultimately  where  purpose,  coming  and  going  of 
conscious  experiences  and  the  constitution  of  the  same,  force  us 
to  it.  Or  rather,  the  maintaining  of  unconscious  sensations 
and  ideas  ultimately  proves  nothing  else  than  that  in  the  psy- 
chic life-connection,  activities  may  be  encountered  and  formu- 
lated which  are  similar  to  the  activities  of  conscious  sensations 
and  ideas,  without  possessing  the  corresponding  conscious  con- 
tent. ’ ’ % The  unconscious,  in  itself,  is  an  entirely  undefined  af- 
fair ; by  an  overstepping  of  the  threshold  of  consciousness  and  a 
lowering  of  the  same,  a process  is  not  changed  from  an  uncon- 
scious into  a conscious  one,  as  it  vere,  inverted,  but  to  it,  the 
conscious  content  comes  or  from  it,  disappears  (38).  There 
are  no  unconscious  or  unnoticed  contents.  Thus,  unconscious 
sensations  and  ideas  are  psychic  realities  without  content  (37). 
Who  can  conceive  of  such  a thing  ? Is  not  something  psychic 
without  content  as  inconceivable  as  color  without  extent  ? 

Only  a few  philosophical  authors  of  to-day  speak  of  a psychic 
existence  of  the  unconscious  elements  of  the  mental  life  which 
carry  and  determine  all  conscious  processes.  To  this  number, 
belong,  besides  Th.  Lipps,  Friedrich  Paulsen  ||  and  Max  Offner. 

* Wundt,  Phys.  Psych.  II,  p.  204. 

t Hoffding,  pp.  108,  110. 

t Lipps,  Leitfaden,  p.  39  f. 

||  Paulsen,  Einleitung  in  die  Philosophic,  Berlin,  1898,  p.  126  ff. 


30 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


The  former  explains  unconscious  ideas  as  “potential  inner 
perceptions”  or  better,  as  not  absolutely  non-conscious  but 
rather  a less-conscious,  a conscious  perhaps  lowered  to  com- 
plete imperceptibility.*  In  these  statements,  I miss  definitive 
cleames  Less  conscious  and  completely  imperceptibly  con- 
scious are  as  different  concepts  as  conscious  and  unconscious, 
for  to  consciousness  belongs,  as  one  may  also  comprehend  the 
term,  perceptibility,  existence.  Less  conscious  is  no  longer 
purely  potential.  Thus  this  defender  of  unconscious  psychic 
phenomena  loses  himself  in  unfathomable  contradictions.  Only 
Max  Offner,  so  far  as  I know,  speaks  candidly  of  unconscious 
psychic  phenomena. 

Thus,  we  arrive  at  this  result:  modern  psychology  cannot 
get  along  without  an  unconscious.  It  frequently  attributes  to 
this  function  the  greatest  significance  for  the  conscious  mental 
life  but  it  can  develop  nothing  systematic  out  of  it.  Beyond 
vague  surmises  which  contribute  nothing  to  the  scientific  ex- 
planation of  psychic  phenomena,  it  does  not  proceed.  For 
psychology,  the  unconscious  is  an  important  but  entirely  un- 
known make-shift.  If  Wundt  is  right  in  his  statement  that 
we  must  give  up  forever  the  hope  of  learning  the  nature  and 
thus  also  the  laws  of  the  unconscious,  then  psychology  is  in  a 
bad  way.  Every  knowledge-seeking  investigator  of  mental 
phenomena  must  feel  indebted  to  him  who  furnishes  informa- 
tion concerning  the  subliminal  processes. 

Is  the  psychoanalyst  this  man?  In  order  to  decide  this 
question,  let  us  proceed  from  the  facts  which  led  him  to  an 
assumption  of  an  unconscious.  That  the  analysis  proceeds 
from  facts  and  only  then  formulates  laws,  is  in  opposition  to 
the  views  of  those  who  assert  that  the  analysts  have  derived 
laws  arbitrarily  and  by  the  help  of  these  laws,  constructed 
facts  which  should  then  afterwards  again  prove  the  laws. 

Breuer  and  Freud  came  to  their  conception  of  unconscious 
ideas  without  any  special  kind  of  interpretation  method.  The 
former  obtained  from  his  famous  patient  while  he  kept  before 


P.  129. 


EXAMPLES  OF  UNCONSCIOUS  PRODUCTION  31 


her  a word  whispered  by  her  during  an  “absence,”  * informa- 
tion which  could  be  checked  up  accurately  by  external  means. 
I,  too,  came,  by  a method  which  differs  in  nothing  from  the 
usual,  customary  scientific  stipulation,  to  the  assumption  of  un- 
conscious psychic  phenomena  by  an  examination  which  hardly 
deserves  to  be  called  an  analysis.! 

A pupil  of  about  sixteen  years  is  one  morning  dumb,  sees 
his  surroundings  in  late  forenoon  still  veiled  in  darkness,  as 
if  it  were  not  yet  day;  as  he  rises,  his  legs  refuse  to  work, 
while  over  his  chest,  a strange  tension  makes  itself  felt.  Urged 
to  confide  in  me  the  secret  which  is  troubling  him,  he  tells  me 
the  previous  history  of  his  illness  up  to  the  afternoon  in  which 
he  was  prevented  by  a feeling  of  shame  from  following  his  in- 
tention of  confessing  to  his  mother  that  he  practiced  onanism 
and  had  stolen  from  her.  In  this  moment,  appeared  the  pain- 
ful thoughts:  “I  can  no  longer  speak  as  I would!  Now  all 
is  dark  before  me ! I hang  only  by  a thread ! ” $ This  mono- 
logue the  patient  had  completely  forgotten  during  his  hysterical 
disturbance. 

I state  emphatically  that  this  memory  caused  me  great  sur- 
prise and  was  in  no  way  influenced  by  me  as  to  content.  Fol- 
lowing our  analytic  or  qualitative  criterion  of  causality,  we  are 
inclined  to  connect  the  hysterical  symptoms  of  dumbness,  dis- 
turbances of  vision  and  gait,  as  well  as  the  feeling  of  a closely 
defined  zone  of  considerable  extent  on  the  chest,  which  is  diffi- 
cult to  understand  psychologically,  with  the  complaint  ex- 
pressed the  day  before,  which  corresponds  exactly  in  content. 

* Under  “absence”  is  understood  what  is  usually  called  unconscious- 
ness. 

f All  the  examples  in  this  book  come,  when  not  otherwise  specified, 
from  my  pedagogic  and  pastoral  practice.  All  refer  to  persons  with 
ethical  or  religious  defects.  All  afford  only  fragments  of  analyses.  It 
has  not  been  possible  to  avoid  giving  the  impression  that  the  analytic 
work  is  simpler  than  is  really  the  case.  The  overcoming  of  the  resist- 
ance (see  Chapter  XIX),  the  avoidance  of  the  so-called  collateral  paths, 
the  interweaving  with  other  symptoms,  and  the  like,  could  not  be 
demonstrated. 

$ The  details  are  in  my  article:  “Psychanalyt.  Seelsorge  u.  experi- 
mentelle  Moralpadagogik.”  Prot.  Monatshefte,  1909,  pp.  3-42. 


32 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


How  the  causal  connection  is  to  be  conceived,  is  as  little  clear  to 
us  as  that  between  the  idea  and  the  execution  of  a voluntary- 
movement  of  the  arm.  It  would  indeed  be  too  remarkable  if 
the  otherwise  absolutely  enigmatical,  affectful  thoughts  and 
the  hysterical  inhibitions  should  have  happened  accidentally  at 
the  same  time.  No  one  will  believe  this. 

In  order  to  proceed  with  entire  certainty,  let  us  look  around 
for  similar  cases.  They  are  very  easy  to  find  for  everyone  who 
has  opportunity  and  ability  to  observe.  I do  not  see  at  all 
that  the  facts  asserted  by  Freud  cannot  be  tested,  as  Kronfeld 
asserts.*  Analogous  examples  in  great  numbers  meet  every 
educator,  pastor  and  physician  who  is  willing  to  see,  hence  the 
second  causal  criterion,  that  of  constant  result,  is  also  fulfilled. 
A few  simple  examples  may  follow : 

A girl  of  fifteen  and  one-half  years  suddenly  exhibits  during 
the  analysis  swollen  lips.  I seek  to  learn  whether  this  phenom- 
enon has  appeared  before  and  discover  that  this  actually  oc- 
curred, one  morning,  five  years  before.  [What  happened  at 
that  time?]  t “A  student  had  wanted  to  kiss  me  the  day  be- 
fore and  I successfully  defended  myself  against  him.”  Since 
that  time,  the  girl  has  hated  the  students  until  the  pastoral 
treatment.  Before  the  recrudescence  of  the  hysterical  phe- 
nomenon, the  girl  had  once  more  refused  the  kisses  of  a young 
admirer. 

A girl  of  twelve  and  a half  years  frequently  suffers  from 
severe  migraine  and  pelvic  pains  which  confine  her  to  her  bed. 
She  has  the  feeling  that  all  her  hairs  are  being  pulled  out.  [ !] 
(After  longer  hesitation:)  “One  day,  my  brother  took  the 
liberty  when  we  were  alone,  to  do  improper  things  to  me.  As 
I struggled,  he  seized  me  violently  by  the  hair.”  [The  pains 
in  the  pelvis.]  ‘ ‘ It  seems  to  me  as  if  a cogwheel  were  revolving 
in  me.  My  brother  was  in  the  habit  of  biting  off  his  fingernails 

* P.  68  (see  foot-note  on  page  18). 

f Throughout  the  whole  book,  square  brackets  contain  my  words 
addressed  to  the  subject  of  analysis,  round  parentheses,  my  notes  in- 
tended for  the  reader.  An  exclamation  point  represents  the  question: 
“What  comes  into  your  mind?” 


EXAMPLES  OF  UNCONSCIOUS  PRODUCTION  33 


so  that  the  edges  were  uneven.”  From  that  hour,  the  symp- 
toms ceased.  Of  a possible  sexual  cause  for  hysteria,  the  girl 
knew  nothing: 

The  same  highly  talented  patient,  whose  hysteria,  unfortu- 
nately, formed  only  the  superstructure  of  an  epilepsy,  presented 
a very  striking  series  of  symptoms.  Some  months  before  I 
made  her  acquaintance,  she  was  seized,  after  the  midday  meal, 
with  a spell  of  clucking.  In  spite  of  the  application  of  various 
household  remedies,  the  tormenting  trouble  continued  until  af- 
ter the  evening  meal,  when  the  little  one  went  to  the  bookcase 
and  read  some  passages  from  Scheffel’s  “Ekkehard.”  Hence- 
forth, as  often  as  the  clucking  became  disturbing,  nothing  helped 
but  the  book  named.  Suddenly,  this  remarkable,  hitherto 
prompt  and  unfailing  remedy  also  lost  its  power,  when  my  help 
was  sought. 

It  is  perhaps  somewhat  presumptuous  to  present  this  example 
at  this  time,  since  it  is  complicated.  But  it  shows  certain 
peculiarities  of  the  unconscious  and  .the  analytic  method  so 
prettily  that  I cannot  bring  myself  to  suppress  it.  According 
to  my  stenographic  notes,  the  exploration  ran  the  following 
course:  [The  clucking.]  “With  us  at  home,  that  is  called 
‘Schnackerl.’  I call  it  foolishly  ‘Goschnill,’  in  which,  I em- 
phasize the  last  syllable.  This  word  seems  to  me  very  signifi- 
cant : ‘ Cochenille  ’ means  the  purple  snail.  My  brother  has  a 
specimen  in  his  collection.  I have  the  strange  impression  that 
the  ‘Goschnill’  could  hop.  This  seems  to  apply  more  to  the 
word  than  to  the  object.  I do  not  know  at  all  why  I find  it  so 
significant.  [Goschnill.]  Gosche,  one  calls  the  mouth  vul- 
garly. ‘Schnill’  might  refer  to  schnellen  (to  jerk),  oh  yes! 
Clucking  is  a jerking  with  the  mouth.  The  hopping  ‘ Goschnill  ’ 
reminds  me  of  hopping  crabs  in  the  dune  sand.  I enjoy  having 
one  of  these  animals  hop  on  me  while  I lay  there  dreaming. 
My  brother  gave  me  countless  lectures  on  them.  My  brother, 
when  he  is  eating  or  is  alone  with  me,  makes  his  hands  jump 
constantly.  (We  shall  discuss  this  obsessional  neurotic  indi- 
vidual on  page  73).  He  jerks  them  into  the  air.” 

It  is  plain  that  many  hysterical  symptoms,  externally  con- 


34 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


sidered,  are  simple  imitations.  The  suspicion  is  at  once 
awakened  in  everyone  who  knows  this  fact,  that  the  mouth  jerk- 
ing of  the  sister  is  connected  with  that  of  the  brother,  and  at 
the  same  time  that  the  purple  snail  and  the  hopping  crabs  also 
refer  to  him.  The  further  investigation  of  the  case  affords  us 
confirmation  of  this  surmise. 

“Ekkehard”  is  our  youth’s  favorite  book.  The  girl  could 
not  read  it  to  the  end,  however,  and  is  anxious  concerning  the 
conclusion.  Her  favorite  is  Frau  Hadwig.  She  loves  an  ‘ ‘ edu- 
cated, awkward,  intolerant  monk  whom  she  can  never  marry 
and  a handsome  servant,  Praxedis.  ” [Ekkehard.]  “My  bro- 
ther is  also  educated,  awkward  and  would  gladly  live  as  a her- 
mit in  a little  church  in  the  wilderness.  ” [Praxedis.]  “She 
reminds  me  of  my  English  teacher  whom  I love  very  much.” 

It  was  directly  ascertained  that  shortly  before  the  failure 
of  the  reading  as  a defence  against  the  clucking,  the  news  of 
the  departure  of  the  beloved  lady  had  been  announced.  Now, 
is  the  conclusion  too  strained  that  our  patient  was  freed  from 
her  automatism  by  the  fact  that  without  noticing  it,  she  com- 
pared herself  to  the  duchess,  nevertheless,  contrary  to  her  ex- 
pectation, was  left  in  the  lurch  by  the  story  when  the  compari- 
son no  longer  tallied  ? We  shall  later  meet  numbers  of  such 
comparisons.  He  who  finds  incredible  our  supposition  of  un- 
conscious trains  of  thought  as  the  connecting  member  between 
the  facts  of  the  clucking  and  that  of  the  relation  to  the  brother, 
as  well  as  to  the  romantic  ideas,  can  turn  to  the  course  of  the 
hysterical  process  of  our  patient. 

About  two  weeks  after  the  subsidence  of  the  clucking,  a tor- 
menting itching  of  the  scalp  broke  out.  A moderate  rash  as 
result  of  use  of  bromide  did  not  explain  the  sensorial  irritation. 
By  questioning,  I found,  at  the  same  time  carefully  avoiding 
all  falsification  from  suggestion : the  young  girl  scratched  her- 
self till  blood  came  (“as  if  I would  scalp  myself”)  and  tore  out 
whole  wisps  of  hair.  The  itching,  in  spite  of  its  painfulness, 
was  a pleasure.  In  more  striking  manner,  during  the  intense 
feeling,  she  had  to  fix  her  eyes  on  her  brother  constantly.  Pre- 
viously, she  had  noticed  that  the  latter,  who  had  formerly  also 


EXAMPLES  OF  UNCONSCIOUS  PRODUCTION  35 


had  a nervous  skin  eruption,  had  a dirty  scalp.*  “Itching” 
can  signify  a motor  function  and  is  then  synonymous  with  jerk- 
ing and  also  a sensory  affair.  This  symptom  also  disappeared 
immediately  after  the  analysis. 

We  shall  frequently  see  how,  in  place  of  a prohibited  neurotic 
manifestation,  another  makes  its  appearance.  As  our  patient 
had  previously  imitated  the  brother ’s  itching  by  a motor  symp- 
tom, the  clucking,  so  now  she  does  it  by  a sensory  one.  There- 
fore she  looked  at  him  constantly  while  she  was  having  her 
hysterical  symptoms.  It  becomes  quite  evident  here  that  below 
the  threshold  of  consciousness,  an  elaboration  of  the  symptom, 
in  the  sense  of  choice  and  automatic  realization  of  a new  sym- 
bol, takes  place.  Some  further  compensations  appeared  after 
the  quickly  attained  cure.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  we  must 
pass  over  them. 

In  order  to  accustom  the  reader  to  the  thought  that  we  are 
really  dealing  with  laws  derived  from  facts,  I will  give  a few 
apt  examples  out  of  many  dozens  of  such. 

A lady  of  twenty -five  years  has  suffered  for  nine  years  from 
severe  migraine  in  the  temples.  [Do  you  recall  the  first  attack 
of  the  trouble?]  “No.”  [Press  on  the  temples  and  think  of 
the  first  attack.]  “It  was  in  the  pension.  I had  just  received 
a letter.  From  my  father.  He  is  a drunkard.  On  his  de- 
parture, he  had  said : ‘Do  not  be  surprised  if  you  receive  a letter 
telling  you  that  I have  shot  myself.’  As  a child,  I had  often 
received  a blow  there,  especially  during  quarrels.  The  mi- 
graine became  far  worse  after  I had  seen  in  a print  the  corpse 
of  a man  who  had  shot  himself  in  the  temples.  ’ ’ 

These  communications  were  interrupted  by  digressive  (or 
apparently  digressive)  remarks.  They  sufficed  to  banish  the 
suffering  from  those  places.  The  same  hysterical  patient,  one 
day  during  the  course  of  the  analysis,  created  a crown  of 
painful  points  of  pressure  on  her  head.  By  the  observation  of 
this  phenomena,  she  awoke  the  memory  that,  as  a girl  of  sixteen, 
after  her  pastor  had  described  the  innocent  One,  persecuted 

* Jung  calls  my  attention  to  the  fact  that  Goethe’s  sister  also  had  an 
eczema  on  neck  and  breast  when  she  would  appear  decollete. 


36 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


and  crowned  with  thorns,  she  plaited  a crown  out  of  thorn 
branches  and  placed  it  on  her  head.  At  present,  she  feels  her- 
self likewise  innocent  but  persecuted.  May  we  venture  the 
surmise  that  she  consoles  herself  by  identification  with  the 
Savior  ? At  all  events,  we  will  not  dispute  an  unconscious  con- 
nection after  the  analogy  of  conscious  trains  of  thought.  The 
crown  of  thorns  disappeared  at  once  after  the  autoanalysis. 

He  who  hesitates  to  give  his  assent  or  thinks  to  escape  with 
mere  psychic  dispositions  should  give  his  attention  to  the  fol- 
lowing example:  A boy  of  sixteen  years  sulfers  from  many 
points  of  pressure  on  his  head  which  go  back  to  falls,  beatings, 
etc.  The  father,  a teacher,  was  in  the  habit  of  boxing  his  son  on 
the  ear  during  piano  instruction,  until  the  painful  places  called 
a halt  to  the  practice.  Immediately  after  the  discovery  of 
these  facts,  the  trouble  disappeared  but  after  a little  while,  re- 
appeared as  an  hysterical  crown  of  thorns.  This  time  also,  the 
apperception  of  the  symptom  led  to  the  Savior,  crowned  with 
thorns,  whose  passion  the  patient  had  viewed  with  pity  in  the 
primary  school.  This  identification,  too,  would  console  for 
undeserved  persecutions.  In  the  next  consultation,  the  boy 
surprised  me  with  a line  of  pressure  which,  when  more  closely 
examined,  brought  forth  the  associated  memory:  “Often,  my 
parents  said  to  me:  ‘You  are  an  odd  saint!’  The  unmasked 
pseudo-messiah  thus  satisfied  himself  with  a somewhat  more 
modest  role.  Who  would  now  assume  that  the  brain  centers 
which  allowed  the  imaginary  thorns  to  be  felt,  have,  without 
psychic  intervention,  yielded  their  function  to  quite  different 
ones  which  have  brought  forth  the  feeling  of  an  aureole? 

An  unintelligent  person  of  forty-eight  years,  whose  super- 
stition long  bothered  me,  asked  me  on  occasion  of  a visit : “ Do 
you  not  think,  Pastor,  that  people  who  were  born  on  special 
days  can  see  wonderful  things  which  are  hidden  from  ordinary 
people?  [Did  you  come  into  the  world  on  a special  day?] 
“Certainly,  on  the  birthday  of  the  Confederation.”  [What 
secret  thing  have  you  seen?]  “Thirty  years  ago,  one  evening 
at  nine  o ’clock,  on  the  steps,  I saw  a white  figure  with  piercing 


EXAMPLES  OF  UNCONSCIOUS  PRODUCTION  37 


black  eyes,  long  black  bair  and  long  fingers.  It  looked  at  me 
without  moving.  I was  at  first  rigid  from  fright  but  then  ran 
into  the  room  and  shouted  that  someone  was  standing  out  there. 
My  parents,  however,  saw  no  one.  Some  days  later,  the  angel 
appeared  to  me  in  my  sleeping  room.”  [Good ! Put  yourself 
back  with  strained  attention  to  the  moment  of  the  vision.  Con- 
sider the  piercing  black  eyes.  What  comes  into  your  mind?] 
“Our  neighbor  had  such  eyes.”  [The  hair  of  the  angel.] 
“This  too  corresponded  with  that  of  the  neighbor.”  [The 
angel  had  long  fingers  which  is  not  usually  related  of  the  mes- 
sengers of  God.]  “Marvelous!  The  neighbor  also  had  long 
fingers.”  (Later  addition:  “On  that  afternoon,  a sales- 
woman had  said  to  me:  ‘Your  neighbor  will  find  no  rest  in 
the  grave  for  she  has  obtained  her  house  through  legacy-hunt- 
ing. ’ ’ ’ Hence  the  long  fingers. ) ‘ ‘ She  liked  to  scare  children. 
We  couldn’t  endure  her!”  (By  chance,  I had  just  analyzed 
two  dreams  of  the  funerals  of  living  people  and  had  found  con- 
firmation of  Freud’s  assertion  (Traumdeutung,  3rd  ed.  p.  179) 
that  behind  these  dreams,  lurks  the  repressed  wish  for  the  death 
of  the  person  in  question.  Therefore,  I continued:)  [The 
neighbor  was  hostile  to  you  but  you  wished  her  not  simply 
death  but  made  her  in  your  vision  into  an  angel  of  God.  What 
better  could  you  wish  for  a person  if  you  would  put  him  aside  ?] 
“I  see  that  you  are  right;  now  I have  rejoiced  over  my  angel 
for  some  thirty  years.” 

(One  recalls  that  professional  murderers  of  children  were 
called  ‘ ‘ angel-makers,  ’ ’ in  which  title,  likewise,  the  base  motive 
is  hidden  by  one  outwardly  sublime.) 

I will  not  suppose  that  the  reader  will  believe  my  interpre- 
tation. Provisionally,  we  have  only  to  deal  with  the  question 
whether  between  the  neighbor  and  the  angel,  a causal  connection 
existed  and  whether  the  change  seen  in  the  hallucination  may 
be  traced  back  to  unconscious  mental  work.  Only  from  a series 
of  observations  of  such  connections  will  we  look  for  the  laws  ac- 
cording to  which  the  subliminal  mental  activity  occurs. 

From  the  large  number  of  religious  hallucinations  which  I 


38 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


have  explored,  I add  a farther  example,*  A youth  of  seventeen 
and  one-half  years  had  the  following  experience : ‘ ‘ Six  and 
one-half  years  ago,  I was  approaching  my  home  after  coming 
from  a neighboring  village.  Suddenly,  I was  attracted  to  look 
at  a mighty  oak.  There  appeared  from  behind  the  tree  and 
coming  toward  me,  a great  black  figure  as  if  it  had  sprung  out  of 
the  ground.  It  rubbed  its  hands  toward  me  as  if  it  would  wash 
them.  At  the  same  time,  there  was  a sound  like  thunder.  For 
some  minutes,  I was  as  if  paralyzed.  I would  gladly  have  run 
away  but  could  not.  Finally,  I ran  home  in  great  excitement.” 
[Describe  the  figure  accurately  and  tell  what  comes  into  your 
mind.  ] ‘ ‘ The  figure  had  black  curly  hair.  Otherwise  nothing. 

Yes!  It  was  naked.  A terrible  enemy  whom  I had,  also  had 
such  hair.  He  spread  the  rumor  concerning  me  that  a certain 
girl  had  been  impregnated  by  me.  Strangely  enough,  this  girl 
came  from  the  village  which  I had  left  shortly  before  the  vision. 
The  physician  examined  the  girl  and  declared  her  pure.  My 
father  complained  for  me  of  injury  to  my  honor.  Before  the 
justice  of  the  peace,  I said  to  my  calumniator:  ‘You  are  a 
regular  devil ! ’ I received  an  indemnity  of  thirty  francs  which 
I gave  to  the  poor.  The  bad  fellow  also  had  black  curly  hair 
just  like  the  devil.  Otherwise,  I know  nothing.”  [The  devil 
was  naked.]  ‘‘Because  it  was  an  impure  thing.  Because  he 
stood  there  in  his  nakedness.”  [Rubbing  the  hands.]  ‘‘Per- 
haps in  rage.  When  my  enemy  was  in  a rage,  he  rubbed  his 
hands.” 

[That  you  did  not  recognize  your  enemy  in  the  devil  for 
seven  years  shows  that  not  all  the  traits  correspond.  Name  the 
most  important  difference.]  ‘‘The  nose.  My  enemy’s  was 
considerably  larger.”  [The  nose  of  the  devil.]  (Simon 
laughs.)  “It  is  very  interesting!  That  girl  had  a strikingly 
small  nose  like  the  devil  in  my  apparition.” 

Since  I already  knew  the  laws  of  unconscious  processes  to  be 
considered  in  this  connection,  I drew  a conclusion  which  I do 
not  expect  the  reader  to  accept  unconditionally  as  yet : ‘ ‘ The 

* Pfister,  Die  psycholog.  Entratselung  der  rel.  Glossolalie  u.  autom. 
Kryptographie,  Leipzig  und  Vienna,  1912,  p.  15  f. 


EXAMPLES  OF  UNCONSCIOUS  PRODUCTION  39 


hallucination  probably  expressed  the  wish  that  the  hated  enemy 
might  be  changed  into  the  devil,  standing  there  in  his  naked- 
ness in  helpless  rage  (like  Lady  Macbeth  after  the  king’s  mur- 
der in  Shakespeare’s  drama)  and  seeking  to  cleanse  his  hands 
by  washing  and  bearing,  in  addition,  the  visible  sign  of  his  cal- 
umniation, the  nose  of  the  injured  girl.”  I am  going  still  a 
little  deeper  into  the  interpretation.  Nevertheless,  at  the  pres- 
ent status  of  our  investigation,  I do  not  once  expect  the  reader 
to  accept  even  the  repeated  interpretation.  I hope  only  to  show 
here  that  a connection  exists  between  the  devil  and  the  enemy 
as  well  as  the  girl,  perhaps  even  a purposeful  connection,  con- 
cerning the  formation  of  which,  every  psychologist  is  curi- 
ous. 

In  order  to  increase  the  expectation  somewhat  more,  I add 
a third  hallucination  which,  like  the  foregoing,  may  also  show 
by  the  way,  how  the  psychoanalytic  method  leads  the  apper- 
ception of  the  object  and  the  entirely  uncritical  association  to 
facts  which  bring  nearer  to  our  understanding  the  relations  of 
origin  of  the  product  of  unconscious  activity.  A physician  of 
forty-seven  years  told  me  that  twenty-five  years  before,  during 
a walk  in  the  forest,  he  suddenly  saw  most  distinctly  in  front 
of  him  at  some  distance,  the  plaster  bust  of  Schleiermacher. 
He  went  up  to  it.  Just  as  he  was  about  to  grasp  it,  it  disap- 
peared. I went  from  there  gladdened  in  spirit.  [ !]  “My 
father,  a pastor,  possessed  such  a bust.  ” [ !]  “ Once  the  maid 

broke  the  glass  bell  mounted  over  it.  I was  still  a child.  My 
father  made  an  awful  fuss  about  it.  The  affair  did  not  con- 
cern me.  I thought  the  insignificant  damage  was  not  worth  so 
much  excitement  on  father ’s  side.  I always  regarded  the  bust 
with  awful  fear.  That  the  figure  stood  there,  I took  as  a sign 
that  it  was  well  with  father.”  [In  what  state  of  mind  were 
you  before  the  vision?]  “I  was  much  troubled  because  an  im- 
portant letter  from  home  did  not  come  in  spite  or  pressing  re- 
quests. My  brother  had  developed  delusions  of  grandeur, 
bought  horses  and  was  always  telegraphing  for  money.  In  or- 
der not  to  spoil  his  career,  father  was  unwilling  to  have  him 
committed  to  an  asylum.  As  I had  received  no  recent  infor- 


40 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


mation,  I thought  father  might  again  be  beside  himself  with 
excitement.” 

The  reader  may  now  test  for  himself  whether  my  questions, 
which  certainly  did  not  suggest  their  own  answers,  afford  ma- 
terial which  may  lead  us  to  an  understanding  of  the  vision. 
Has  the  memory  of  Schleiermacher  in  the  critical  moment  a 
real  meaning?  I think  so.  The  identification  of  the  two 
worthy  theologians,  the  father  and  Schleiermacher,  rendered 
it  possible  that  the  perception  of  the  latter  might  also  afford 
assurance  of  the  safety  of  the  former.  The  memory  of  the 
blind  rage  on  account  of  the  onetime  endangering  of  the  statue 
brought  the  consolation  that  now  too  the  father’s  excitement 
may  be  greatly  exaggerated.  For  the  rest,  the  person  who 
had  the  hallucination  is  innocent  of  the  affair  and  only  indirect- 
ly concerned.*  Thus,  we  now  understand  also  the  cheerful 
mood  which  would  otherwise  be  difficult  to  comprehend.  A 
candidate  in  medicine,  just  before  the  state  examination,  must 
have  known  that  an  hallucination  is  to  be  considered  as  patho- 
logical. 

I leave  to  the  reader  to  seek  a simpler  interpretation  of  the 
vision.  But  he  cannot  well  dispute  the  following:  Between 
the  vision  and  the  facts  gained  by  psychoanalysis,  just  as  in  the 
examples  previously  mentioned,  there  must  exist  a connection. 
He  who  does  not  deny  every  causal  relation  on  the  ground  of  a 
prejudice  similar  to  that  which  caused  Descartes  to  consider  all 
animals  as  creaking  machines,  must  assume  a purposeful  work 
below  the  threshold  of  consciousness  similar  to  that  of  conscious 
deliberation.  In  the  three  last  described  analysis,  the  apper- 
ception of  the  hallucination  (angel,  devil,  Schleiermacher)  led 
us  to  facts  which  have  a very  intimate  relation  to  a present, 
easily  ascertained  wish.  Thus,  the  hallucination  expresses  a 
really  purposeful  thought,  which,  because  of  grounds  provi- 
sionally withheld  from  our  understanding,  forms  below  the 

* If  the  reader  does  my  book  the  honor  of  a second  reading,  he  will 
find  in  this  parallel  the  allaying  of  the  evil  wish  which  must  have  been 
repressed  and  thereby  occasioned  the  hallucination. 


EXAMPLES  OF  UNCONSCIOUS  PRODUCTION  41 


threshold  of  consciousness  and  manifests  itself  psychically  or 
physically  in  disguised  form. 

That,  even  in  old  age,  such  processes  occur,  a lady  of  sixty- 
nine  years  shows.  One  day  there  occurred  an  automatic  twitch- 
ing of  the  upper  lip  toward  the  left  ear,  accompanied  by  a 
ringing  and  buzzing  which  seemed  to  come  from  a mosquito. 
[Mosquito.]  “The  mosquito  is  a sucker  of  blood.  My  son 
wrote  me  before  the  outbreak  of  twitching  and  buzzing  that  his 
lady  friend,  for  wThom  he  had  made  pecuniary  sacrifices,  and 
who  had  promised  to  marry  him,  has  turned  him  down.  I find 
this  customary  with  her.  She  too  was  a blood-sucker/’ 

[The  twitching.]  “I  find  nothing.”  I knew  that  the  son 
mentioned  had  a scar  on  the  same  place.  As  he  returned  from 
the  mensur  (duel) , his  mother,  m her  first  awful  fright,  thought 
someone  had  tried  to  murder  him.  The  ringing  in  the  ear  re- 
minded her  also  of  that  of  a rapier.  The  lady  probably  con- 
nected the  present  (financial)  loss  of  blood  with  that  which  had 
once  actually  occurred  and  which,  at  that  time,  had  such  a 
harmless  outcome.  Of  this  logical  operation  also,  there  was  not 
the  slightest  trace  in  consciousness. 

Finally,  I mention  an  observation  which  shows  us  the  un- 
conscious at  work  in  a normal  individual.  A gentleman  of 
thirty-six  years  told  me  that  for  some  days  he  had  been  tor- 
mented by  a word,  the  meaning  of  which  was  entirely  unknown 
to  him.  He  only  knew  dimly  that  while  in  the  preparatory 
school,  some  twenty-two  years  before,  he  might  possibly  have 
heard  it  in  Greek  history  but  could  not  remember  to  have  heard 
it  again  since.  The  word  was  called  “Pentakosiomedimne.” 
He  asked  me  to  give  him  the  meaning  of  it  or  help  him  to  seek 
it.  Fortunately,  my  memory  also  failed  so  that  I turned  to 
analysis  and  began:  [Think  of  the  word  intently  and  tell  me 
what  comes  into  your  mind.]  After  a long  pause,  I received 
the  following:  “The  word  ‘Medimne’  reminds  me  of  ‘Medu- 
sa.’ ” [Keep  it  sharply  in  view.]  “Now  I see  clearly  the  dis- 
torted face  of  a near  relative  whom,  on  account  of  incurable 
insanity,  I was  compelled  to  take  to  a sanitarium  some  days  ago. 


42 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


I have  to  put  up  for  the  cost  of  his  care  which  goes  hard  with 
me.” 

Here  the  conversation  was  interrupted  by  lack  of  time.  The 
next  time  I directed  his  attention  to  the  beginning  of  the  word. 
After  some  hesitation,  the  association  came  out : “Pente  must 
mean  five.  I think  of  a chemical  agent  which  is  composed  of 
five  ingredients.  Ah  so ! On  the  morning  when  the  obsessing 
word  appeared  for  the  first  time,  I was  lying  down  with  a pain 
in  my  stomach  and  took  a narcotic.  I thought  of  my  relative. 
Then  the  thought  came  to  me : If  one  could  only  give  the  poor 
paralytic  a powerful  narcotic  too,  and  indeed  so  much  that — .” 
Later,  it  showed  further  that  under  the  suffering  of  the  patient, 
five  persons  nearly  related  to  the  one  being  analyzed,  were 
strongly  concerned. 

Is  it  so  entirely  unreasonable  if  we  now  seek  a purposeful 
connection  between  the  associations  and  the  facts  indicated  by 
them  with  the  obsessing  word  ? A priori,  an  inner  relation  be- 
tween obsession  and  worry  is  probable.  Further,  the  associa- 
tions point  to  it.  If,  however,  there  is  a psychic  connection, 
then  nothing  prevents  asking  for  the  meaning  of  an  obsessional 
idea.  It  is  quite  easily  found,  for  “Pentakosiomedimne”  sig- 
nifies, as  the  person  under  analysis  certainly  knew  in  his  time, 
the  members  of  the  highest  class  of  citizens  under  Solon.  Our 
subject  has  suffered  long  from  pecuniary  embarrassment  since 
he  has  previously  had  to  care  for  many  relatives.  For  some 
time,  he  has  experienced  an  essential  bettering  of  his  income. 
The  obsessional  idea  acquired,  as  in  so  many  of  the  foregoing 
cases,  the  good  meaning  of  a consolation : The  economic  care 
occasioned  by  the  mental  disease  is  offset  by  the  financial  im- 
provement. 

If  we  do  not  dogmatically  deny  an  unconscious  mental  life, 
we  observe  in  this  example  various  subliminal  performances: 
A group  of  ideas,  which  confers  the  full  logical  meaning  on  the 
technical  expression  (“Pentakosiomedimne”)  belonging  to  it, 
has  disappeared  from  memory  and  yet,  the  expression  suits  the 
situation  surpassingly  well.  Likewise,  in  the  final  result,  dif- 
ferent ideas  which  have  become  acute,  are  intelligently  joined 


ASSUMPTION  OF  AN  UNCONSCIOUS 


43 


together,  (“medimne” — medusa,  distorted  face,  pental — sooth- 
ing, sleeping-potion,  pente — five  persons  concerned). 

I have  put  forward  for  the  reader’s  consideration  a collection 
of  cases  intentionally  left  unarranged.  It  would  be  as  easy  as 
it  would  be  aimless  and  tiring  to  fill  a portly  volume  with  simi- 
lar observations,  for  similar  facts  and  processes  come  to  the 
view  of  the  analyst  in  great  numbers,  both  in  his  practice  and 
in  his  daily  life.  Generally,  one  will  not  and  cannot  see  them. 
It  is  now  our  task  to  draw  conclusions  necessarily  resulting 
from  our  material. 

The  unconscious  is  not  easier  and  also  not  harder  to  demon- 
strate than  the  conscious  of  another  person.  As  Cartesius,  on 
the  ground  of  his  conception  of  thinking,  denied  animals  all 
psychic  impulses,  so  one  can  consider  all  other  people  as  mere 
creaking  machines  without  the  possibility  of  being  contra- 
dicted. The  immanent  philosophy  which  allows  the  whole 
world  to  exist  only  in  my  idea,  has  produced  something  quite 
different.  Animal  psychology,  under  the  circumstances,  could 
never  have  convinced  a Cartesius  redivivus  if  it  had  spent  fifty 
years  on  this  one  task.  Only  a conclusion  from  analogy  assures 
us  of  the  existence  of  an  animal  mind  and  of  mental  life  in  other 
persons,  and  conclusions  from  analogy  can  always  be  disputed. 
But  what  reasonable  man  would  go  so  far  in  scepticism  ? He 
who  would  deny  that  psychic  motives  lie  at  the  bottom  of  in- 
dividual acts  of  other  people,  wTould  be  ready  for  the  madhouse. 

In  assuming  an  unconscious  mental  life  in  the  cases  observed, 
we  do  nothing  different  than  wrhen  we  presuppose  a conscious- 
ness outside  ourselves  in  this  or  that  psychical  or  physical  per- 
formance. We  hold  ourselves  to  the  criteria  of  relationship  of 
content  and  constant  results.  We  saw  automatic  dumbness, 
visual  disturbance  and  feeling  of  tension  with  paralysis,  in 
temporal  conjunction  with  the  affectful  complaint,  forgotten  at 
that  time : “I  cannot  speak  and  see,  I hang  only  by  a thread. ’ ’ 
In  numerous  eases,  wTe  see  physical  and  psychical  phenomena, 
which  wmuld  otherwise  remain  entirely  unexplained,  arranged 
as  to  causality  or  brought  nearer  to  our  scientific  understanding 
when  we  fall  back  on  the  hypothesis  of  a subliminal  mental  life. 


44 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Thus  it  is  incorrect  when  Kronfeld  asserts  that  psychoanalysis 
is  not  founded  on  facts  but  constructs  such  with  the  help  of  a 
theory.* 

We  saw  the  unconscious,  never  as  a mere  disposition,  but 
always  as  a molding,  creative  force.  Even  where  there  seems 
to  be  a mere  reproduction  in  an  automatism,  upon  closer  con- 
sideration, a more  complicated  thought  process  is  unmistak- 
able, as  for  example  in  the  following  case : A youth  of  seven- 
teen years  has  felt  for  some  days,  a strange  sensation  in  his  left 
arm.  The  occasion  and  meaning  of  the  symptom  are  entirely 
inexplicable  to  him.  When  his  attention  is  concentrated  upon 
the  symptom,  he  recalls  that  as  a child,  he  was  about  to  be 
vaccinated  but  struggled  so  violently  that  the  hated  procedure 
had  to  be  given  up.  At  the  present  also,  there  is  something 
unpleasant  in  view:  the  father  wishes  to  transfer  his  son  to 
another  institute  which  is  displeasing  to  the  son.  Thus,  the- 
hysterical  innervation  expresses  the  wish  that  this  time  too, 
the  father’s  plan  may  be  frustrated  by  obstinacy.  This  logi- 
cal connection  is  entirely  lacking  in  consciousness.  Not  once 
does  the  scene  with  the  physician  become  conscious  without 
analytic  assistance.  If  the  scheme  of  refractory  conduct  had 
been  clearly  conceived,  then  that  picture  from  youth  could 
quite  well  appear.  Now,  however,  at  the  moment  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  symptom,  an  unconscious  thought  presents  a 
merely  suggestive  expression  which  selects  from  an  experience 
an  especially  characteristic  agency  and  brings  it  to  automatic 
expression. 

We  recognize  many  more  complicated  unconscious  perform- 
ances in  the  more  complicated  phenomena,  for  example,  in  the 
clucking  and  itching,  in  the  crown  of  thorns  and  the  halo,  in 
the  long  fingered  and  short  nosed  angel,  the  devil  with  the 
features  of  two  familiar  persons,  etc.  Later,  we  shall  meet 
very  many  more  elaborate  productions  of  subliminal  activity, 
even  to  the  most  sublime  structures  of  art  and  religion.  Since 
below  the  threshold  of  consciousness,  the  most  imposing  trans- 

* Kronfeld,  fiber  d.  psych.  Anschauungen  Freuds,  p.  64. 


UNCONSCIOUS  PRODUCTIVITY 


45 


formations  and  new  creations  take  place  systematically,  it  is 
incorrect  to  call  the  unconscious  a mere  “disposition”  or  to 
consider  it  as  a purely  physical  affair. 

. This  unconscious  productivity,  in  which,  emotion,  will  and 
intellect  have  a share,  thus  unconscious  sensations,  ideas, 
emotions  and  inclinations,  is  the  first  fact  which  we  emphasize. 
The  other  fact  is : It  has  been  possible  for  us  with  the  help  of 
our  attitude  toward  the  manifestations  of  the  unconscious  and 
the  collection  of  the  ideas  associated  with  these,  to  gain  a mean- 
ing for  the  phenomena  to  be  explained,  often  with  surprisingly 
little  trouble.  Often,  the  associations  gained  from  the  apper- 
ception, at  first  run  in  all  directions,  somewhat  like  the  slap- 
dash lines  of  a rapidly  sketching  cartoonist.  Suddenly,  how- 
ever, one  perceives  in  the  apparently  meaningless  and  hap- 
hazard mass  of  ideas,  a purposeful  whole  which  agrees  very 
well  with  the  situation  of  the  subject. 

Here,  a word  may  be  interpolated  in  reply  to  the  objection 
that  the  analyst  allows  himself  to  be  deceived  by  the  subject 
of  the  analysis  or  is  selfdeceived  by  giving  suggestion  and 
thereby  causing  the  results.  One  prevents  suggestion  so  far 
as  it  may  falsify  the  answers  by  the  tone  and  manner  and  the 
same  stereotyped  question:  “What  comes  into  your  mind?” 
The  subject  of  the  analysis  will  certainly  often  seek  to  lie. 
Still  he  can  only  lie  about  what  comes  into  his  mind  and  that 
is  the  important  material.  He  cannot  invent  the  structure  of 
a neurosis.  External  substantiation  of  the  replies  is  often  pos- 
sible. Especially  in  dreams  and  the  reaction  experiment,  the 
liar  is  often  drolly  unmasked,  since  he  betrays  himself  without 
noticing  it.  Finally,  the  patient  perceives  that  he  injures 
only  himself  and  not  the  analyst  by  untruthfulness.  In  a case 
published  from  the  semianalytic  side,  the  physician  may  be 
duped  by  an  invented  tale.  The  difficult  patient  who  had  been 
nourished  for  years  by  the  probe,  experienced  a relapse  and 
now  confessed  repentantly  to  the  physician  who  applied  the 
real  analysis,  her  deceit,  whereupon  the  treatment  could  be  con- 
tinued and  permanent  recovery  obtained. 

Without  the  psychoanalytic  method,  we  would  absolutely 


46 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


never  have  attained  an  insight  into  the  structure  and  cause  of 
the  symptoms  of  the  majority  of  our  simplest  cases,  concerning 
some  of  which  very  sharp-sighted  people  had  racked  their 
brains. 

I do  not  say  that  psychoanalysis  is  the  only  method  by  which 
the  unconscious  may  be  ascertained.  One  can  also  afford  the 
proof  synthetically  by  giving  an  order  in  hypnosis  and  com- 
manding at  the  same  time  to  forget  the  occasion  of  the  order. 
For  example,  a teacher  may  be  commanded  to  put  a little  paper 
hat  on  the  top  of  the  stove  in  his  room  the  next  day,  never- 
theless, to  forget  that  this  was  expected  of  him.  The  man  will 
do  it  after  he  has  invented  some  kind  of  a plausible  motive, 
perhaps  a very  clever  one,  perhaps  the  desirability  of  greater 
practice  in  triangulation.  The  real  motive  remains  uncon- 
scious.* 

We  are  now  in  a position  to  characterize  descriptively  the 
unconscious  with  which  psychoanalysis  has  to  deal.  ‘ ‘ Uncon- 
scious,” “subconscious”  or  “subliminal,”  we  call  the  intellect- 
ual processes  taking  place  outside  of  consciousness,  which 
processes,  we  infer  according  to  the  principles  of  causal  con- 
nection derived  from  physical  and  psychical  phenomena. 
These  subconscious  mental  phenomena,  we  conceive  to  be  ex- 
actly analogous  to  the  conscious,  only  the  characteristic  of 
being  known  is  lacking  to  them.  The  hypothesis  of  localiza- 
tion in  certain  nerve  centers  is  denied  to  no  one,  but  because 
of  the  intellectual  importance  of  the  subliminal  mental  prod- 
ucts and  of  the  material  utilized,  these  phenomena  cannot  be 
made  subordinate,  as  Janet  and  Grasset  believe,  t 

According  to  Freud,  the  distinction  between  conscious  and 
unconscious  ideas  is  not  merely  a dynamic  one,  somewhat  of 
the  kind  that  the  unconscious  idea  lacks  the  power  to  become 
conscious  as  in  the  case  of  a weak  sensory  stimulus.  An  un- 
conscious idea,  to  which  an  instinct  is  attached,  can  rule  the 

* Beautiful  examples  are  given  by  Narziss  Ach,  fiber  die  Willens- 
t&tigkeit  u.  d.  Denken,  Gottingen,  1902,  p.  188  ff. 

fJ.  Grasset,  Le  spiritisms  devant  la  science,  Paris,  1904,  pp.  99, 
110  ff. 


FORECONSCIOUS  AND  UNCONSCIOUS  47 


whole  life,  devastate  it  and  cripple  it  in  its  development.* 
Hence,  Freud  distinguishes  foreconscious  ideas  which  lack  only 
the  conscious  investment  of  energy,  from  the  real  unconscious, 
but  attributes  to  this  distinction  more  practical  than  theoretical 
value,  t Both  kinds,  the  foreconscious  and  the  unconscious, 
come  under  the  term  subliminal.  I see  no  occasion  to  fix 
sharply  the  distinction  between  the  two,  as  something  like 
Kant’s  distinction  between  the  world  of  phenomena  and  the 
thing  in  itself. 

As  the  mental  life  is  divested  by  many  psychologists  of  its 
own  causality  and  traced  back  to  purely  physical  causality 
without  the  psychological  investigation  falling  along  with  it, 
so  also  can  the  unconscious  be  reduced  to  physiological  proc- 
esses without  psychoanalysis  coming  to  naught  thereby.  Some 
analysts  incline  to  this  hypothesis  of  psychophysical  material- 
ism.}: Why  I do  not  do  this,.  I have  previously  explained. 
But  the  representatives  of  the  purely  physiological  unconscious 
must  take  to  psychological  formulations,  for  the  knowledge  of 
the  brain  processes  affirmed  also  by  the  adherents  of  the 
psychological  unconscious  is  entirely  denied  to  us. 

Similarly  to  the  expression,  “consciousness,”  that  of  the 
unconscious  has  different  meanings.  Now,  it  denotes  the 
totality  of  what  is  non-conscious,  now,  the  unconscious  mental 
life  including  its  own  activity.  In  this  significance,  Freud 
denotes  it  by  the  abbreviation  “Ubw.”  (Unc.).|| 

* Freud,  A note  on  the  Unconscious  in  Psycho-Analysis.  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research,  Part  LXVI,  Vol.  XXVI 
(1912),  p.  314. 

f P.  316. 

t Freud  also  formerly  expressed  himself  in  this  sense,  for  example, 
Kleine  Schriften,  I,  p.  62. 

||  Traumdeutung,  p.  318. 


SECTION  I 

REPRESSION  AND  FIXATION 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  UNCONSCIOUS  AS  PRODUCT  OF  REPRESSION 
AND  AS  ENTITY  FREE  FROM  REPRESSION 

Although  we  have  attained  a clear  definition  of  our  object 
and  a general  description  of  the  method  of  investigation  to  be 
employed  and  elaborated,  there  still  floats  before  us  a rather 
nebulous  conception  of  our  field  of  work.  In  order  to  lift  the 
veil,  we  will  attempt  a genetic  consideration  of  the  uncon- 
scious. 

Janet  thought  he  could  explain  the  phenomena  of  hysteria 
as  degenerative  phenomena.  Because  of  a degeneration  of  the 
nervous  system,  there  appeared  a mental  splitting  of  the  per- 
sonality so  that  the  mental  processes  which  belonged  together 
could  no  longer  be  synthetized  to  a unity,  but  remained  dis- 
sociated.* Degenerative?  There,  we  have  again  a horrible 
word,  under  which,  anything  can  be  comprehended  because 
no  one  sees  anything  clearly  intelligible  and  obvious  in  it,  or 
if  he  does,  someone  else  comes  along  and  explains  that  this  is 
not  degenerative.!  Of  a degeneration  of  the  nerves  as  a 
foundation  for  dissociation,  we  know  nothing;  further,  the 
astounding  performances  of  many  hysterical  individuals  in 
perception,  memory,  phantasy  and  other  functions,  do  not 
speak  for  degeneration. 

Instead  of  trusting  ourselves  to  the  cheap  vessel  of  the 

* Freud,  liber  Psychoanalyse,  p.  16  f. 

1 1 have  discussed  the  conclusions  of  Bar,  Kurella,  Nacke,  Bleuler  and 
Lombroso  in  my  book,  “Die  Willensfreiheit”  (p.  106  f. ) . 

48 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  CONCEPTS 


49 


physiological  hypothesis,  we  will  seek  to  attain  our  goal  by 
psychological  analysis. 

First,  we  must  get  clear  some  fundamental  concepts  of 
psychology.  In  the  following  pages,  there  will  be  much  men- 
tion of  sensations,  perceptions  and  ideas,  of  emotions,  instincts, 
acts  of  the  will  and  similar  mental  phenomena ; the  scientific 
determination  of  these  terms  is  a bone  of  contention  among  the 
various  psychological  schools  and  parties.  It  is  right  to  ask 
ourselves  in  what  sense  we  understand  these  words. 

For  our  immediate  experience,  there  are  only  psychic 
events,  in  which  we  distinguish  an  intellectual  and  an  emotional 
side.*  We  distinguish  what  is  related  to  objects  outside  of 
consciousness,  all  sensations,  ideas  and  thoughts,  as  intellectual 
content,  from  that  which  depends  on  the  behavior  of  the  sub- 
ject, thus  from  emotions  and  inclinations.  Pure  sensations, 
ideas  and  thoughts  are  as  scarce  in  conscious  mental  life  as 
pure  emotional  reactions,  volitional  reactions  and  actions. 
The  expression,  “emotionally  toned  idea,”  if  it  did  not  suggest 
strong  emotional  emphasis,  would  be  a pleonasm. 

Psychology,  like  psychoanalysis,  has  the  greatest  interest 
in  the  question  whether  both  sides  of  the  mental  phenomenon 
may  be  traced  back  to  one  fundamental  form.  One  group  of 
authors  believe  they  can  separate  the  emotional  into  intellectual 
elements.  Herbart  would  explain  all  mental  processes  as 
statics  and  mechanics  of  ideas,  Spencer  and  Steinthal  consider 
the  will  as  a mere  idea,  Miinsterberg,  Lehmann  and  Wahle 
conceive  it  to  be  a complex  of  ideas  and  sensation. f Ziehen 
and  Ebbinghaus  lay  special  stress  on  the  idea  of  activity,  with- 
out which  idea,  according  to  their  conclusions,  attention  can- 
not once  appear.:}:  Of  the  intellectualistic  theories,  I can  illus- 
trate only  one,  at  the  same  time,  however,  indicating  the  errors 
of  its  sisters,  namely,  that  of  Meumann.||  This  theory  con- 

* Wundt,  Grundziige  der  phys.  Psych.,  6th  ed.  Vol.  I,  1908,  p.  404. 

t 0.  Kiilpe,  Die  Lehre  vom  Willen  in  der  neueren  Psychologie,  Leip- 
zig, 1888. 

t Ziehen,  Leitfaden  der  physiol.  Psychologie,  p.  173.  Ebbinghaus, 
Abriss  d.  Psychologie  (Diirr),  Leipzig,  1910,  p.  81. 

||  E.  Heumann,  Intelligenz  und  Wille,  Leipzig,  1908,  p.  192. 


50 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


aiders  as  indispensable  attributes  of  every  voluntary  act:  (1) 
the  goal  idea;  (2)  the  judgment  corresponding  to  it;  (3)  the 
bringing  about  of  the  action  to  be  performed  by  these  two  ele- 
ments and  at  the  same  time  the  causative  action  itself  and  our 
consciousness  of  this  action  ( 188 ) . According  to  Meumann,  the 
consciousness  of  activity  in  the  volition  is  “nothing  else  than 
a consciousness  of  this  personal  preparation  for  the  act” 
(188f.).  “In  a volitional  act,  we  notice  how  nothing  else  ap- 
pears in  our  consciousness  except  causative  energy,  except  the 
goal  fixed  by  us,  the  approved  motive  corresponding  to  the  aim 
and  our  appropriate  act.  In  general,  where  this  selection 
brought  about  by  us  among  psychic  processes,  appears,  we 
know  ourselves  to  be  voluntarily  active.  The  nucleus  of  the 
will  process  is  accordingly  this  selection  phenomenon  and  its 
causation  by  suitable  goal  ideas  which  we  ourselves  have  fixed 
and  to  which  we  have  imparted  an  inner  acquiescence.  It 
is  not  every  selection  among  our  ideas  but  this  active  selection 
which  constitutes  the  will”  (191).  In  this  presentation,  an 
emotion  does  not  come  into  consideration.  “It  contradicts  the 
nature  of  emotions,  which  are  always  objects  of  pleasure  and 
displeasure,  to  impose  on  them  thoughts  of  an  activity”  (191). 

I do  not  see  that  Meumann  could  explain  the  emotional 
element  as  purely  intellectual.  It  lies  hidden  already  in  the 
goal  idea,  as  well  as  in  the  judgment  corresponding  to  it  and  in 
the  causation  of  the  act  to  be  performed.  If  Meumann  had 
analyzed  these  phenomena,  it  would  have  been  plain  to  him. 
The  same  applies  to  the  amplifying  and  explanatory  formula- 
tions of  the  same  psychologist : In  consciousness  of  “personal 
causation  of  the  action”  lies  the  knowledge  of  the  activity  re- 
posing in  the  will.  Further,  the  selection  is  derived  from  the 
tendency  inferred  in  the  goal  idea.  Meumann  did  not 
analyze  the  volitional  process  itself  as  it  is  experienced  but 
as  it  is  looked  at  from  without.  Hence,  he  made  a fatal  mis- 
take right  at  the  decisive  point : out  of  the  experienced  activity, 
this  center  of  the  volitional  act,  he  makes  a mere  knowing  of 
the  personal  activity.  The  latter,  he  changed  from  a con- 
stituent factor  of  the  volitional  performance  into  a mere  object 


PSYCHOLOGY  OF  EMOTION 


51 


of  knowledge,  the  content  of  which,  the  personal,  that  is,  mental 
activity,  is  not  raised  beyond  all  doubt.  Thus,  Meumann  can 
assert  the  primacy  of  the  intellect,  east  doubt  on  the  spontaneity 
of  the  subject  in  a volitional  experience,  deny  psychic  causality 
and  allow  credence  only  to  the  physical  in  the  sense  of  psycho- 
physical materialism. 

Concerning  the  psychology  of  emotion,  not  much  more  need 
be  said.  One  widespread  theory  attempts  to  reduce  the 
emotions  like  the  will  to  sensations  and  indeed  to  sensations  in 
organs.  Lange  supports  the  standpoint  that  emotion  may  be 
the  sensory  reaction  to  vasomotor  stimuli  (excitation  of  the 
arteries),  while  James  lays  more  stress  on  sensations  associated 
with  physical  movements  of  expression.*  In  the  sense  of 
Lange,  we  would  say : “We  feel  because  our  vessels  expand  ’ ’ ; 
James  says  outright:  “We  are  sad  because  we  weep  and 
angry  because  we  tremble.”  Meumann  considers  the  emotions 
as  blendings  of  organic  sensations.! 

The  expression,  “feeling,”  is  used  in  various  senses.  Its 
application  to  tactile  sensations  is  to  be  rejected  for  only  con- 
fusion results  from  this  speech  usage.  On  the  other  hand, 
for  scientific  language,  a terminology  is  justified  which  desig- 
nates as  feelings,  states  of  consciousness  which,  although  com- 
posite and  including  intellectual  factors,  nevertheless,  are 
essentially  determined  in  their  characteristics  by  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  joyous  or  painful,  the  pleasant  or  unpleasant, 
of  pleasure  or  pain.J  Thus,  one  may  speak  of  a feeling  of 
pity,  love  or  hate.  Only,  one  must  make  himself  clear  that 
here  too,  no  pure  feeling  exists,  that  rather,  the  whole  is  named 
according  to  a predominating  subjective  attribute.  Where 
strict,  sharp  observation  is  necessary,  we  limit  the  expression 

* W.  James,  Psychologie.  German  by  Marie  Dfirr,  Leipzig,  1909, 
376  ff.  P.  Fischer,  Darstellung  und  Kritik  der  Hauptansiehten  fiber  die 
Natur  des  GefOhls  in  der  neuesten  Psychologie,  Breslau,  1897,  p.  13  f. 
An  excellent  presentation  of  the  investigation  of  the  psychology  of 
emotion  from  1900-1909  is  given  by  Mathilde  Kelchner  in  the  Archiv 
f.  d.  ges.  Psychologie  (Lit.)  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  97-104. 

f Meumann,  Int.  u.  Wille.,  p.  290. 

t Witasek,  p.  317. 


52 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


“feeling”  to  the  perceptible  factors  of  pleasure  and  displeasure 
in  a mental  experience. 

In  criticism  of  the  physiological  theories  of  emotion,  may 
be  advanced:  the  asserted  organic  sensations  are  admitted. 
Ebbinghaus  alone  rightly  recalls  in  this  connection  that  the 
emotional  theory  of  James  and  Lange  cannot  explain  why 
emotions  can  never  appear  in  consciousness  without  content  to 
which  they  are  connected  and  why  sensations  like  those  of  pain, 
hunger,  etc.,  are  inseparable  from  the  emotions  belonging  to 
them.*  Further,  sadness  is  something  different  from  percep- 
tion of  weeping  and  its  accompanying  innervation  sensations 
plus  the  idea  of  a state  of  affairs.  “lam  glad  ’ ’ says  something 
different  from  “I  have  intestinal  sensations,  brain  innervations 
and  more  of  the  same.”  For  psychoanalytic  work,  however, 
the  deciding  of  this  debated  point  is  not  necessary. 

Many  psychologists  assign  feeling,  with  Wundt,  to  the  vo- 
litional acts,  so  far  as  in  every  pleasure,  an  inclination  exists, 
in  every  displeasure,  a disinclination,  and  every  emotion  pre- 
pares or  can  prepare  for  a volitional  act.f  The  transition  to 
the  volitional  act  is  formed  by  the  affect,  this  “coherent  flow 
of  emotion  of  unified  character.  ’ ’ J 

As  simplest  form  of  volition,  one  usually  considers  the  vo- 
litional act  which,  under  the  influence  of  an  affect,  proceeds 
toward  the  goal  of  setting  aside  this  affect.  “The  affects  which 
arise  from  sensual  emotions,  as  well  as  the  omnipresent  social 
affects,  such  as  love,  hate,  anger,  vengeance,  are  the  original 
sources  of  the  will,  both  with  man  and  the  lower  animals.”  || 
The  affect,  with  its  accompanying  idea,  forms  the  motive  for 
the  act  and  indeed,  the  former  is  the  impulse  and  the  latter, 
the  motive.  In  the  decision,  the  emotions  mutually  inhibit  one 
another  and  thereby  always  lose  more  and  more  in  intensity  5 
The  will  seems  then  (falsely)  determined  by  purely  intellectual 

* H.  Ebbinghaus,  Grundziige  der  Psychologic,  3rd  ed.  ( Durr ) , Leip- 
zig, 1911,  Vol.  I,  p.  543  f. 

f Wundt,  Grundriss,  p.  217. 

t P.  214. 

||  Grundriss,  p.  216. 

HP.  223. 


VOLITION 


53 


motives.  In  similar  repeated  external  or  internal  decisions 
of  the  will,  the  previously  subordinated  motives  appear  weaker 
and  finally  disappear  * altogether,  the  victorious  motive  also 
retreats,  the  volitional  act  is  set  free  by  the  external  stimulus 
(without  appearing  in  consciousness,  it  becomes  mechanical, 
automatic.! 

In  this  whole  development,  I find  no  occasion  and  no  oppor- 
tunity to  separate  causality  of  will  and  assign  it  to  physiology, 
to  the  psychophysical  materialism.  Even  if  one  traces  the 
will  back  to  an  act  of  judgment,  the  formula  of  Fouillee  holds : 
“La  volition  est  la  determination  par  un  jugement  qui  pro- 
nonce que  la  realisation  de  telle  fin  depend  de  notre  caus- 
alite  propre.”}  “Aucune  combinaison  de  passives  n’ex- 
pliquerait  d’une  mainere  intelligible  le  sentiment  d’activite,  et 
le  vouloir-vivre  est  aussi  clair  en  nous  que  la  sensation 
meme.”  || 

All  volitional  impulses  may  be  comprised  in  groups  accord- 
ing to  their  aims  and  traced  back  to  some  few  purposeful 
efforts  of  the  volitional  subject.  Such  simple  tendencies  of 
definite  aim,  to  speak  with  Hoffding,H  such  pressure  of  activity 
directed  by  the  goal  idea,  the  development  of  which  tendencies 
is  seen  in  the  varied  extent  of  mental  processes,  we  call,  from 
the  psychological  side,  instincts.  In  every-day  life,  one  speaks 
of  hunger-,  self-preservation-,  sexual-,  knowledge-instinct,  etc. 
In  general,  one  traces  them  back  to  two  fundamental  instincts : 
the  instincts  for  preservation  of  self  and  the  race,§  hunger 
and  love  (Schiller)  or  to  the  ego  instinct  and  the  sexual  instinct 
(Freud).**  I do  not  think  that  one  can  be  satisfied  with  this 
division,  so  far  as  one  understands  with  Freud  under  the  ego 
instincts,  only  the  strivings  toward  preservation  of  the  in- 

*P.  226. 

t p.  227. 

t Fouillee,  La  psychologie  des  idees-motrices,  Paris,  1893,  2d.  Ed. 
II,  p.  263. 

||  P.  232. 

If  Hoffding,  p.  119. 

§ Witasek,  p.  364. 

**  Freud,  Psychoanalytische  Bemerkungen  ii.  e.  autobiographiscb 
beschriebenen  Fall  von  Paranoia,  Jahrbuch  III,  p.  65. 


54 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


dividual  being.  It  seems  to  me  that  it  is  quite  as  good  to  speak 
of  an  instinct  for  individual  and  racial  improvement,  continua- 
tion or  enrichment.  If  we  express  the  instincts  in  these  defi- 
nitions according  to  their  motive  impulses,  then  we  can  denote 
them  according  to  their  sources  as  life  impulse,  pleasure 
hunger  or  libido.  It  is  really  arbitrary  to  limit  the  latter  name 
entirely  or  principally  to  the  sexual  instinct. 

The  psychological  derivations  gained,  do  not  necessarily 
belong  to  the  presuppositions  of  psychoanalysis,  to  which  fact 
I call  especial  attention.  Freud  himself  is  close  to  psycho- 
physical materialism  when  he  sees,  for  example,  in  instinct, 
“the  psychic  representative  of  organic  forces.”*  At  all 
events,  however,  psychoanalysis  favors,  as  we  shall  see,  the 
voluntaristic  psychology  which  considers  the  instincts  as  the 
determining  factors,  the  ideas  more  as  only  the  organs  of  these. 

Let  us  proceed  now,  after  having  gained  the  very  necessary 
and  valuable  connection  to  the  earlier  psychology,!  to  an  in- 
vestigation of  the  unconscious. 

Can  a common  attribute  be  shown  in  the  examples  cited  by 
us,  from  which  we  may  succeed  according  to  our  formulae  of 
hypothesis  and  law  to  a scientific  comprehension  of  unconscious 
mental  forces  ? 

As  a matter  of  fact,  one  characteristic  predominates  in  our 
collected  cases : throughout,  as  we  followed  the  causes  of  strik- 
ing phenomena,  we  encountered  painful  ideas  which  had  once 
been  conscious,  then  however,  and  just  at  the  time  of  those 
phenomena,  disappeared  from  consciousness.  The  idea  itself 
was  painful  because  it  corresponded  to  a very  strong  wish 
which  was  prohibited  by  a higher  demand.  The  phenomena 
we  have  presented,  which  we  recognized  as  offshoots  of  un- 
conscious mental  impulses,  turn  out  to  be  compromise  products, 
in  which  two  opposed  currents  of  high  intensity  effect  a com- 
promise. 

* Same. 

f The  psychoanalyst  is  very  glad  and  ready  to  learn  from  the  experi- 
mental psychologists  since  he  in  general  does  not  pose  as  having  the 
only  proper  method. 


REPRESSION 


65 


We  will  show  this  in  our  examples.  On  account  of  the 
simplicity,  I will  choose  the  schematic  form  on  page  56, 

The  unconscious  motives  which  are  reflected  in  the  symptoms, 
were  unconscious,  in  part  only  at  the  moment  of  the  symptom, 
in  part  in  general  foreign  to  consciousness  until  the  analysis 
raised  them  above  the  threshold.* 

The  conflicting  ideas,  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  conflict 
of  these  ideas,  will  be  discussed  in  the  following  chapters. 
Likewise,  we  shall  have  to  investigate  why  not  every  conflict 
of  two  emotionally  toned  ideas  furnishes  a subconscious  motive 
for  phenomena  such  as  we  found  in  the  previous  examples. 

So  far  as  the  collision  of  two  ideas  occasions  a subliminal 
motive  influencing  the  mental  or  physical  life,  we  speak  of  a 
repression.  Accordingly,  an  idea  is  repressed  when  it  comes 
into  conflict  with  one  or  more  other  ideas  of  higher  value  to 
the  individual  in  question  and,  as  a result  of  this  conflict,  is 
forced  out  of  consciousness. 

That  there  may  be  such  a repression  of  conscious  content 
by  opposing  content,  was  not  first  discovered  by  Freud.  Her- 
bart  has  already  originated  a theory  of  repression.  He  says : 
“We  all  notice  within  ourselves  that  of  our  total  knowing, 
thinking  and  wishing,  in  any  particular  moment,  an  incom- 
parably smaller  amount  actually  occupies  our  attention  than 
that  which  might  appear  upon  proper  occasion.  In  what  con- 
dition does  this  absent  but  not  dissipated  knowledge,  which 
remains  and  persists  in  our  possession,  exist  in  us  ? . . . What 
can  prevent  our  firmest  convictions,  our  best  intentions,  our 
cultivated  emotions,  often  over  long  periods,  from  becoming 
effective  ? What  can  produce  the  unfortunate  sluggishness  in 
them,  which  so  often  exposes  us  to  vain  regret?  Other 
thoughts  have  busied  us  too  completely!  This  we  all  know 
already  from  experience.  And  yet  we  have  preferred  to  lose 
ourselves  in  the  heresies  of  transcendental  freedom  and  radical 
evil,  which  destroy  all  healthy  metaphysics,  to  making  exact 
investigations  of  the  psychological  mechanism  on  which  plainly 

* From  later  experiences,  it  is  shown  that  also  behind  the  conscious 
motives,  powerful  unconscious  ones  lurked. 


56 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


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58 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


the  blame  must  lie.  . . . Two  ideas  suffice  to  repress  a third 
completely  out  of  consciousness  and  to  occasion  a totally  in- 
dependent condition.  One  idea  alone  cannot  do  this  against 
the  two.  ...”  * 

“As  we  speak  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  ideas,  so  I would  call 
an  idea  ‘under  the  threshold’  when  it  lacks  the  power  to  fulfill 
those  conditions  under  which  it  is  perceived.  Just  the  condi- 
tion in  which  it  then  exists  is  always  the  same  as  complete  in- 
hibition; still,  it  may  be  more  or  less  completely  ‘under  the 
threshold’  according  as  more  or  less  strength  is  lacking  to  it, 
and  must  be  added  in  order  to  pass  the  threshold.  ’ ’ t 

We  find  these  important  thoughts  entirely  substantiated. 
To-day,  too,  one  usually  prefers  to  flee  into  metaphysics, 
especially  into  psychophysical  materialism,  rather  than  trace 
out  the  conditions  of  the  repression.  The  psychoanalytic  in- 
vestigation confirms  in  surprising  degree,  as  we  shall  see  later, 
the  observation  that  one  idea  alone  is  never  sufficient  to  repress 
another.  Behind  the  ideas  given  in  our  table,  there  lurk,  with- 
out exception,  further  submerged,  related  ideas  (“overdeter- 
minants ”) . We  shall  also  find  Herbart ’s  sharp-sighted  theory 
of  the  degrees  of  repression  to  be  correct. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  the  whole  list  of  psycholo- 
gists who,  since  Herbart,  have  recognized  the  repression  as 
existing.  I mention  only  one  especially  keen  student  of 
humanity,  Nietzsche,  who  says:  “ ‘That  have  I done,’  says 
my  memory.  ‘That  have  I not  done,’  says  my  pride  and 
remains  inexorable.  Finally,  memory  yields.  ’ ’ J 

Also,  psychiatrists  like  Pick  and  Hellpach  already  recognized 
before  Freud  that  repression  plays  a role  in  certain  “nervous” 
diseases.|| 

It  is  to  be  emphasized  that  by  no  means  all  the  unconscious 

* Herbart,  Psychologie  als  Wissenschaft,  neu  gegriindet  auf  Erfahrung, 
Metaphysik  und  Mathematik,  Part  I,  Section  47.  (Werke,  herausg. 
v.  Kehrback,  Vol.  V,  Langensalza  1890),  p.  292. 

t P.  293. 

t Nietzsche,  Jenseits  von  Gut  und  Bose,  IV,  p.  68. 

||  Bleuler,  Die  Psychoanalyse  Freuds,  Jahrbueli,  II,  p.  692.  Schultz, 
Psychoanalyse,  Zeitschrift  f.  angewaudte  Psychologie,  1909,  p.  486. 


THE  UNREPRESSED  UNCONSCIOUS 


59 


is  brought  about  by  repression.  Freud  lays  stress  on  this 
statement.*  That  which  is  commanded  in  hypnosis  or  that 
which  is  forgotten  without  the  pressure  of  antagonistic  ideas, 
to  reappear  again  sometime,  is  not  repressed  and  yet  uncon- 
scious. Also,  according  to  Wundt,  the  underlying,  ultimately 
absent,  motives  in  similar  decisions  of  will,  are  repressed,  t 
Further,  we  can  assert  with  Durr  “that  every  disconnected 
content,  appearing  beside  other  psychic  processes,  brings  with 
itself  an  encroachment  upon  the  consciousness  of  those  proc- 
esses. ’ ’ % Pedagogy,  and  that  of  the  intellect  as  well  as  that  of 
the  will,  has  to  do  in  great  part  with  this  unrepressed  uncon- 
scious and  has  exact  knowledge  of  its  existence. 

Psychoanalysis  also  deals  with  this  matter.  One  should  not 
be  deceived  by  the  plan  of  this  book  concerning  this  condition 
of  affairs!  But  to-day,  the  analytic  movement  founded  by 
Freud  stands  in  a stage  which  is  devoted  almost  exclusively 
to  the  repressed  unconscious.  With  the  other  subliminal  com- 
ponents, the  traditional  psychology  and  pedagogy  is  already 
busying  itself  more  than  it  knows.  Pedagogy  has  always  pro- 
ceeded toward  the  origin  of  ideational  and  emotional  disposi- 
tions. Psychoanalysis  gained  entirely  new  ground  and  wholly 
new  pedagogic  possibilities  for  work  from  the  investigation  of 
the  repressed  phenomena  below  the  threshold.  Further,  the 
knowledge  of  repression-free  subliminal  components,  as  it  has 
thus  far  been  attained  by  the  help  of  the  Freudian  investiga- 
tion, proceeded  from  the  repressed  material  and  can  best  be 
shown  in  connection  with  those  investigations.  Perhaps,  in  a 
few  years,  the  presentation  here  sketched,  which  proceeds 
from  the  repression,  will  no  longer  suffice. 

* Freud,  Gradiva,  p.  40. 

f Wundt,  Grundri8s,  p.  226. 

+ £.  Diirr,  Die  Lehre  von  der  Aufmerkaamkeit,  Leipzig,  1907,  p.  149. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  REPRESSED  MATERIAL 

Having  traced  the  unconscious  by  the  aid  of  analysis  to  its 
subterranean  lair,  we  will  now  with  true  sportsman’s  zeal, 
examine  the  valuable  savage  at  closer  range.  In  this,  we 
should  not  allow  ourselves  to  be  influenced  by  any  preconceived 
opinion.  He  is  a miserable  hunter  who  would  allow  his  quarry 
to  be  run  to  earth  by  a forester,  beforehand,  and  afterward 
complain  that  he  should  have  come  skillfully  to  his  object ! 
Fortunately,  not  only  has  Freud  constantly  and  fundamentally 
changed  his  views  concerning  our  object,  but  there  prevails 
among  his  followers  a multitude  of  different  opinions.  This 
occasions  the  lively  opposition  of  the  critics.  Hence,  one  can- 
not  avoid  the  tedious  developing  of  one ’s  own  judgment. 

I.  Freud’s  Theory. 

I shall  not  take  back  with  the  left  hand  what  the  right  gave, 
if  I,  nevertheless,  present  some  theories  in  which  Freud  and 
others  have  formulated  their  insight  into  the  nature  of  the 
repressed  material.  By  my  procedure,  the  reader  will  see  on 
what  things  to  depend  and  he  will  be  protected  from  all  kinds 
of  errors  into  which  so  many  critics,  in  manners  conceivable 
and  inconceivable,  have  fallen.  Thus  I ask,  not  for  rude  Frau 
Fama  faith  which,  according  to  Friedlander’s  complaint,  has 
brought  the  reproach  of  “pansexualism”  against  psycho- 
analysis, but  to  test  in  unprejudiced  manner  what  Freud  has 
said  and  then  to  investigate  in  truly  objective  manner  in  how 
far  his  view  is  correct. 

Nothing  has  so  injured  the  estimation  of  Freud’s  wprk  as  his 
thesis  that  the  cause  of  every  hysteria,  anxiety  and  obsessional 
neurosis  is  to  be  sought  in  the  sexual  life.  This  statement  has 

60 


FREUD’S  THEORY 


61 


its  previous  history.  In  the  beginning  (1894),  the  founder  of 
psychoanalysis  asserted  only  that  he  had  found  as  cause  in  all 
cases  of  obsessional  neurosis  investigated  by  him,  a painful 
affect  from  the  sexual  sphere,  but  nevertheless,  he  did  not 
exclude  affects  from  other  fields.*  In  the  “Studies  in  Hys- 
teria” (1895),  he  said,  however:  “The  observation  forced 
itself  upon  my  attention  that  in  so  far  as  one  may  speak  of  a 
cause  by  which  neuroses  are  brought  about,  the  etiology  is  to 
be  sought  in  the  sexual  agencies.”  t That  he  came  to  this 
insight  against  his  will,  he  declares  t by  saying  that  it  was 
long  enough  before  he  was  “converted”  to  this  view;  this  he 
mentions  three  years  later.  || 

The  original  thesis  was  soon  (1896)  made  more  explicit  by 
Freud’s  assertion  that  the  sexual  traumas  of  early  childhood 
were  the  cause  of  hysteria;  these  traumas  consisted  of  actual 
irritation  of  the  genitals,  coitus-like  procedures,  sexual  pass- 
ivity in  presexual  periods.il  At  the  same  time,  Freud  believed 
he  could  establish  § the  origin  of  the  obsessional  neurosis  in 
sexual  activity,  namely  in  -“aggressions  carried  out  with 
pleasure  and  participation  in  sexual  acts  associated  with 
pleasure.”  In  spite  of  the  violent  opposition  which  arose 
against  him,  he  saw  in  every  case  the  ultimate  foundation  of  an 
hysteria  in  a sexual  experience  in  early  childhood  and  indeed 
in  sexual  intercourse  (in  broadest  sense).**  In  addition,  ac- 
cording to  a communication  in  1898,  the  thought  prevailed 
that  the  sexual  cause  of  the  neuroses  might  not  be  the  exclusive 
one,  but  that  it  “only  added  one  more  to  all  the  known  and 
probably  rightly  recognized  etiological  agencies  of  the 
authors.”  ft 

Later  (1906),  Freud  went  beyond  these  hypotheses.  In  a 

* Freud,  Die  Abwehr-Neuropsvchosen.  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  51. 

f Studien  iiber  Hysterie,  p.  224. 

t P.  226. 

||  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  158. 

HP.  113. 

§P.  118. 

**P.  160,  162. 

ft  P.  189. 


62 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


personal  article,  he  partially  retracted  his  previously  expressed 
views  regarding  the  role  of  sexuality  in  the  causation  of  the 
neuroses.*  A mass  of  later  observations  made  him  certain,  in 
the  course  of  a decade,  that  a traumatic  experience  did  not 
necessarily  lie  at  the  bottom  of  the  malady  but  often  only  a 
phantasy  (“memory  fancy ”).f  As  the  outer  activities  lost 
in  importance,  the  inborn  tendencies,  now  however,  as  “sexual 
disposition,”  gained  the  upper  hand.J 

It  remained,  however,  in  the  statement  that  the  psychoneuro- 
tic suffers  ||  from  a repressed  sexual  complex,  the  word  taken  in 
its  broadest  sense.  More  recently,  it  has  been  announced  that 
the  sexual  instinct  affords  the  only  constant  condition  and  the 
most  important  source  of  energy  in  the  neurosis,  “so  that  the 
sexual  life  of  the  person  in  question  expresses  itself,  either 
exclusively  or  predominantly  or  only  partially,  in  these  symp- 
toms.” If  The  hysterical  individual  bears  within  himself  a 
bit  of  abnormally  strong  sexual  repression  alongside  an  ex- 
cessive elaboration  of  the  sexual  instinct.  “The  occasion  for 
the  malady  develops  for  the  hysterically  disposed  person,  when, 
because  of  the  progressive  maturing  processes  or  external  rela- 
tions of  life,  real  sexual  demands  make  their  appearance  in 
earnest.”  § This  statement  has  likewise  proved  to  be  unten- 
able since  hysterical  children  have  been  analyzed. 

Freud ’s  sexual  theory  underwent  a sharp  elaboration  in  the 
formulations  of  the  year  1908:  “The  hysterical  symptom 
corresponds  to  the  return  to  a manner  of  sexual  gratification 
which  was  real  in  infantile  life  and  which  has  since  been  re- 
pressed.” **  “The  hysterical  symptom  can  assume  the  repre- 
sentation of  various  unconscious  non-sexual  impulses  but  can- 
not dispense  with  a sexual  significance.  ”tt 

*K1.  Schriften  I,  pp.  225-234. 

fP.  229. 

JP.  230. 

||  Kl.  Schriften  II,  p.  119  (1906). 

f Drei  Abhandlungen  zur  Sexualtheorie  1905,  p.  8;  2d  Part  1910, 
p.  25  f.  Kl.  Schriften  II,  p.  180. 

§ P 27. 

**  Kl.  Schriften  II,  pp.  142,  150. 

ft  P.  143. 


FREUD’S  THEORY 


63 


Only  in  the  last  few  years  did  Freud  see  himself  compelled 
to  revise  the  definition  of  sexuality.  He  did  it  in  1910  in  the 
following  important  words:  “It  cannot  have  remained  un- 
perceived by  the  physician  that  psychoanalysis  is  accustomed 
to  suffer  the  reproach  that  it  extends  the  term,  sexual,  far  be- 
yond the  customary  extent.  The  complaint  is  just ; whether  it 
may  be  applied  as  reproach,  may  not  be  discussed  here.  The 
term  sexual  includes  far  more  in  psychoanalysis ; it  goes  both 
below  and  above  the  popular  sense.  This  extension  is  justified 
genetically;  we  reckon  to  the  ‘sexual  life’  also  all  play  of 
tender  emotions,  which  have  sprung  from  the  source  of  primi- 
tive sexual  impulses,  both  when  these  impulses  experience  an 
inhibition  of  their  original  sexual  goal  or  have  exchanged  this 
goal  for  another  one,  no  longer  sexual.  We  speak,  therefore, 
preferably,  of  psyehosexuality,  putting  emphasis  on  the  fact 
that  one  should  not  overlook  nor  undervalue  the  mental  factor 
of  the  sexual  life.  We  use  the  word  sexuality  in  the  same 
comprehensive  sense  as  the  German  language  does  the  word 
‘love.’”* 

How  much  indignation  and  animosity  would  have  been 
avoided  if  this  explanation  had  been  given  earlier ! But  a long 
struggle  was  necessary  before  this  stage  of  knowledge  could  be 
reached.  That  we  are  in  no  way  dealing  with  an  entirely  new 
theory,  Freud  pointed  out,  later  still,  when  he  asserted  that 
“all  our  valuable  emotional  relations  in  life,  those  of  sym- 
pathy, friendship,  faith,  etc.,  are  genetically  joined  to  sexual- 
ity and  have  developed  by  the  decline  of  the  sexual  goal  from 
purely  sexual  desires,  however  pure  and  non-sensuous  they 
may  seem  to  our  conscious  selfperception.  Originally,  we  have 
known  only  sexual  objects;  psychoanalysis  shows  us  that  the 
merely  esteemed  and  revered  persons  of  our  reality  may  still  al- 
ways be  sexual  objects  for  the  unconscious  in  us.”  t 

If  one  adds  these  statements  to  Freud ’s  previous  expositions, 
they  contain  no  very  startling  thoughts.  Insert  for  “sex- 
uality” the  word  “love”  and  no  one  will  deny  that  sympathy 

* Freud,  tiber  “ wilde  ” Psychoanalyse.  Zentralblatt  f.  Pse.  I,  p.  92. 

f Freud,  Zur  Dynamik  der  ubertragung,  Zbl.  II,  p.  171. 


64* 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


and  friendship  and  faith  have  something  to  do  with  sexuality. 
For  who  can  conceive  of  those  ethical  functions  without  love  ? 
Further,  that  they  are  based  on  sensual  experiences  of  child- 
hood is  obvious.  It  is  only  questionable  whether  for  the  latter, 
the  predicate  of  sexual  is  to  be  recommended.  We  shall  speak 
of  this  later  (Chapter  VIII)  after  our  data  is  more  complete. 

We  see  on  the  one  side,  the  term  sexuality  constantly  more 
generalized  until  it  is  finally  withdrawn  from  speech  usage  to 
the  most  extreme  unintelligibility,  and  on  the  other  side,  the 
range  of  activity  of  sexuality  extended  ever  further  and  fur- 
ther. In  1900,  Freud  said  that  the  majority  of  the  dreams  of 
adults  deal  with  sexual  material  and  bring  erotic  wishes  to  ex- 
pression, even  when  one  does  not  see  it  in  the  content  of  the 
dream.*  Of  late  (1911),  he  has  traced  back  the  day-dreams, 
which  are  so  important  for  pedagogy,  and  indeed  religion,  art 
and  education,  in  great  part,  to  sexual  processes  of  develop- 
ment.! To  the  capability  of  the  sexual  instinct  to  exchange 
the  immediate  sexual  goal  for  more  remote  and  socially  more 
valuable  ones,  or  to  yield  contributions  of  energy  to  the  latter, 
Freud  ascribes  a decisive  importance  for  the  attainment  of  the 
highest  cultural  achievements.!;  The  idealistic  characteristic 
of  his  sexual  theory  here  comes  beautifully  to  expression. 

The  criticism  of  this  theory  did  not  long  remain  absent. 
From  the  side  of  opponents  as  well  as  from  that  of  adherents, 
besides  high  admiration,  there  were  presented  weighty  con- 
siderations. We  understand  the  opposition  right  well. 
Freud’s  original  assertions  and  the  later  terminology  were  very 
challenging.  But  it  was  unfair  to  accuse  the  analysts  of  try- 
ing to  spy  out  sexual  motives.  The  emphasizing  of  that  kind 
of  causes  is  founded  rather  in  the  force  of  circumstances,  which 
is  felt  as  very  troublesome.  Thus,  Ferenczi  says:  “At  the 
Third  Hungarian  Psychiatric  Congress  in  Budapest,  I com- 
mitted an  error  in  my  paper,  several  years  ago,  which  is  difficult 

* Traumdeutung,  2d  ed.  p.  197,  3rd.  ed.  p,  205. 

f Formulierungen  iiber  die  zwei  Prinzipien  des  psych.  Geschehens. 
Jahrbuch  III,  p.  5 f. 

% Freud,  tiber  Psychoanalyse,  p.  61. 


FERENCZI  AND  FREUD 


65 


to  make  good : I left  out  of  consideration  the  investigation  of 
neuroses  by  the  Vienna  University,  Professor  Freud.  This 
omission  was  all  the  more  culpable  since  I had  knowledge  of  the 
works  of  Freud.  Already  in  1893, 1 had  read  his  article.  To- 
day, when  I have  been  convinced  in  so  many  cases  of  the  correct- 
ness of  the  Freudian  theories,  I must  ask  myself  why  I so 
rashly  reproached  them  at  that  time,  why  they  seemed  to  me 
at  that  time  a priori  improbable  and  artificial  and  especially : 
why  the  assumption  of  a purely  sexual  pathogenesis  of  the  neu- 
roses called  forth  in  me  such  a violent  resistance  that  I did  not 
once  accord  them  a closer  study.  In  palliation  of  my  attitude, 
I must  at  all  events  state  that  the  vast  majority  of  my  colleagues 
still  to-day  maintain  toward  Freud  an  entirely  negative  atti- 
tude. The  few,  however,  who  later  tested  it,  usually  became 
enthusiastic  adherents  of  the  hitherto  entirely  unconsidered 
movement.”*  Bleuler  and  Jung  also  could  not  believe  in 
Freud’s  emphasis  of  the  sexual  causes  of  the  neuroses  until 
they  turned  to  the  authority  against  which  the  opponents  of 
psychoanalysis  cherish  an  insurmountable  aversion,  the  per- 
sonal observation.!  Bleuler  emphasizes  that  he  guarded  more 
than  enough  against  leading  his  patients  by  his  questions  to 
sexual  matters.!  I have  already  said  that  I had  exactly  the 
same  experience.  ||  And  so  it  has  gone  with  many  others  who, 
like  the  experienced  neurologist,  Prof.  James  J.  Putnam J felt 
themselves  at  first  repelled  by  certain  assertions  of  Freud,  then 
recognized  the  duty  of  testing  and  changed  into  ardent  ad- 
herents of  psychoanalysis. 

II.  Personal  Observations 

We  shall  first  present  the  facts  in  the  case.  In  this,  we  shall 
carefully  consider  whether  we  come  upon  sexual  causes  and 

* Ferenczi,  Wiener  Klin.  Rundschau,  1908,  No.  48. 

f Bleuler,  J}ie  Psychoanalyse  Freuds.  Jahrb.  II,  p.  642  f. 

t Bleuler,  Dementia  prsecox  oder  Gruppe  der  Schizophrenic,  Leipzig 
and  Vienna,  1911. 

||  Psyclioanalyt.  Seelsorge  u.  exper.  Moralpiid.  Prot.  Monatsh.,  1909, 
p.  34  f.  Ev.  Freiheit,  1910,  p.  19  f. 

IT  Putnam,  Personliche  Erfahrungen  mit  Freuds  psa.  Methode.  Zbl 
I,  633. 


66 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


promise  now,  as  we  are  standing  before  important  decisions, 
that  we  will  neither  deny  sexual  facts  because  of  prudery  or 
fear  of  men  nor  will  assert  such  from  preference  for  a clever 
doctrine. 

I begin  with  a few  cases  chosen  at  random,  the  sexual  moti- 
vation of  which  lies  on  the  surface. 

1.  Educational  Problems  plainly  dependent  on  sexual 

Matters 

A young  woman  of  twenty-three  years  is  suddenly  pursued 
by  tormenting  hallucinations.  On  the  street,  snakes  glide  over 
her  feet ; snakes  hang  from  the  ceiling  of  her  sleeping-room  to 
her  bed,  the  stove-pipe,  the  telephone  cord,  a stick  in  the  cellar 
a finger  long,  change  into  snakes,  so  that  she  can  no  longer 
visit  certain  places  because  of  anxiety.  In  bed,  she  cannot 
stretch  out  lest  she  touch  a snake ; further,  eating  is  prevented 
since  she  is  afraid  of  biting  the  same  animal. 

Some  days  before  the  outbreak  of  the  trouble,  a woman  had 
warned  the  girl  in  a religious  conversation.  The  latter  had 
confessed  that  she  often  yielded  to  sexual  impulses  and  asked  if 
this  were  sinful.  The  answer  was  so  disquieting  that  immedi- 
ately a fervent  vow  against  the  evil  habit  came  into  the  field. 
The  analysis  quickly  disclosed  the  meaning  of  the  hallucina- 
tion. Previously,  the  girl  had  been  afraid  that  there  might  be 
a man  under  her  bed,  now  she  believes  that  there  is  a snake  lying 
there.  He  who  knows  that  in  Greece  at  certain  feasts,  a serpent 
was  likewise  laid  in  a chest  like  a phallus,  sees  through  the 
meaning  of  the  anxiety  symptom  already.  A quieting  explana- 
tion, which  afforded  the  excited  instincts  opportunity  to  adapt 
themselves  to  idealistic  goals,  eliminated  the  visions  in  a few 
conversations.  Whether  complete  sublimation  * at  once  oc- 
curred, I do  not  know,  since  I have  no  information  on  this  point. 
Some  weeks  after  the  hallucinations  had  disappeared,  this  vic- 
tim of  anxiety-hysteria  visited  a pietistic  preacher  who  gravely 
warned  against  sins.  The  girl  remembered  the  ideas  of  her 
counsellor  and  renewed  her  vow.  Some  days  later,  the  snakes 
* Transposition  into  activities  of  higher  ethical  value. 


ANXIETY  PHENOMENA  67 

were  promptly  in  their  places,  to  be  likewise  promptly  banished 
by  renewed  and  deeper  analysis,  this  time  probably  forever. 

A girl  of  sixteen,  who  fairly  hates  all  men,  suffers  from 
severe  anxiety  upon  going  to  sleep.  All  men  except  Jesus  can 
be  imagined  only  with  erect  penises.  Often,  she  hallucinates 
a man  who  disappears  behind  her  bed.  In  dreams,  she  sees 
herself  naked,  pursued  and  whipped  by  her  father.  The  man 
whom  she  hallucinates  evenings,  plainly  resembles  a boy  who 
misused  the  little  girl  sexually  in  her  eighth  year,  in  company 
with  her  brother  and  another  boy.  The  girl  says  she  has  a 
burning  desire  to  give  herself  to  the  first  man  or  boy  she  may 
meet.  Life  is  repugnant  to  her.  In  an  analysis  lasting  eight 
or  nine  months,  often  tedious,  the  important  hysterical  symp- 
toms were  eliminated  but  the  anxiety  still  remained,  although 
in  much  less  intensity  and  this  only  completely  disappeared 
when  the  girl  left  her  parents’  house  and  removed  to  another 
city.  Since  then,  the  girl,  in  whom  the  physician  had  diagnosed 
beginning  dementia  praeeox,  has  been  cheerful  and  genial  and 
her  ethical  conduct  is  most  commendable.  The  parents  whom 
she  hated  bitterly  in  past  years,  she  loves  tenderly. 

The  woman  of  forty-eight  years  mentioned  on  page  36,  who 
had  hallucinations  of  an  angel  vision,  reported  in  the  same 
quarter  hour,  an  attack  of  anxiety  which  seized  her  every 
evening  as  dusk  was  coming  on.  [Have  you  experienced  pre- 
vious to  the  beginning  of  the  anxiety  attacks,  something  very 
painful  in  the  hours  of  dusk?]  “My  father  caused  hateful 
scenes.  ’ ’ [Did  you  not  also  experience  something  which  would 
still  more  excite  an  eighteen  year  old  girl?]  “Yes,  a friend 
of  my  brother  once  made  improper  demands  in  the  hours  of 
dusk  but  I resisted  him.  In  the  beginning,  I feared  the  young 
man  would  come  again.  This  thought  soon  disappeared  but 
the  anxiety  remained.”  [When  you  are  in  this  condition  to- 
day or  to-morrow,  recall  exactly  the  experience  with  the  young 
man.]  For  two  or  three  months,  this  person,  who  was  of  limit- 
ed mentality,  was  free  from  anxiety.  When  this  returned,  I 
found  that  the  memory  of  the  content  of  our  conversation  was 
entirely  absent.  When  I simply  impressed  it  again,  definite 


68 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


recovery  occurred,  at  least  no  relapse  has  occurred  up  to 
to-day  (three  years) . Even  if  superstitious  suggestions,  which 
I could  not  prevent,  aided,  still  the  easily  performed  analysis  of 
a condition  of  thirty  years  standing,  which  analysis  had  not 
taken  a half  hour  altogether,  was  well  recompensed. 

A student,  aged  twenty-two,  has  been  subject  since  his  thir- 
teenth year  to  a severe  case  of  obsessional  washing.  In  spite 
of  all  ridicule  on  the  part  of  his  associates,  he  washes  his  hands 
countless  times.  The  obsession  broke  out  after  his  father  had 
treated  him  for  masturbation  by  boxing  his  ears  and  whipping 
him.  In  some  other  cases  of  obsessional  washing,  I found  a 
similar  cause. 

The  same  patient  has  suffered  for  seventeen  years  from  severe 
asthma,  because  of  which,  he  has  had  to  leave  the  preparatory 
school  repeatedly,  losing  in  all  one  and  a half  years.  The  in- 
firmity would  overtake  him  on  the  open  street  so  that  he  would 
drop  down ; it  frequently  caused  a loud  whistling  during  his 
speech  and  most  grievously  disturbed  his  rest  at  night.  One 
day,  I found  that  the  patient,  when  five  years  of  age,  had  suf- 
fered from  pathological  fear  of  steam  rollers  and  .fires  and  had 
slept  constantly  under  the  covers.  The  apperception  of  the 
idea  “steam  roller”  immediately  called  forth  associations  which 
the  patient  recognized  as  descriptive  of  a marital  embrace. 
The  steam  roller  proved  to  be  a symbol  for  the  puffing  father. 
( Somewhat  later,  a fear  of  horses  which  this  patient  had  had 
when  two  years  old,  was  traced  back  by  himself,  by  means  of 
the  associated,  words,  to  an  exchange  of  the  horse  with  the  be- 
getting father  so  that  the  case  agreed  completely  with  Freud ’s 
later  published  case  of  phobia  in  a five  year  old  boy.*)  Two 
days  aiter  the  interpretation  of  the  machine-phobia,  it  was 
noticed  that  the  asthma  had  ceased  coincidently  with  the  lat- 
ter. The  suspicion  of  hysteria  was  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  in  his  eleventh  year,  when  the  boy  had  shared  the  sleeping 
room  with  an  asthmatic  patient,  the  whistling  sound  in  breath- 
ing had  appeared  as  difficulty  in  breathing.  I therefore  ad- 
vised the  patient  with  complete  avoidance  of  suggestive  pres- 

*Jahrbuch,  I,  pp.  1-109. 


ASTHMA  AND  SEXUALITY 


69 


sure,  to  throw  away  the  smoking  powder  and  upon  the  outbreak 
of  oppression  in  the  chest,  to  recall  exactly  what  kind  of 
thoughts  were  running  through  his  mind  at  that  particular 
time.  The  energetically  applied  autoanalysis  revealed  every 
time  a sexual  scene  in  which  the  patient  practiced  that  puffing 
which  he  had  already  recognized  as  the  cause  of  the  fear  of  the 
steam  roller.  As  the  connection  of  the  asthma  with  the  sexual 
idea  was  made  clear,  the  anxiety  disappeared  in  a twinkling. 
After  one  or  two  weeks,  the  last  remnant  of  a tormenting  afflic- 
tion of  seventeen  years’  duration  had  disappeared  without  leav- 
ing a trace.  The  cure  has  since  lasted  some  years  as  the  patient 
assures  me.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  practically  simultaneously  an 
immense  network  of  hysterical  symptoms,  phobias  and  obses- 
sions was  overcome,  so  that  the  youth,  at  one  time  of  apparently 
superior  religious  and  moral  nature,  who  for  many  years  had 
been  unbelievably  depraved  and  been  treated  in  various  psy- 
chiatric institutes  without  result,  may  be  considered  cured  in 
two  or  three  months.  A quarter  of  a year  later,  several 
psychiatrists  pronounced  him  completely  restored  to  health. 
In  autumn,  there  appeared  a relapse  into  disorderly  habits, 
since  the  Don  Juanism,  which  was  still  unknown  to  me  at  the 
time,  had  not  been  analyzed  and  probably  ethical  feebleminded- 
ness was  also  present.  The  youth  left  me  in  anger  and  resumed 
many  pathological  symptoms  including  the  asthma.  A short 
written  communication,  in  which  I expressed  my  indifference 
toward  such  puerility,  again  restored  health. 

The  elimination  of  the  asthma  came  about,  as  the  reader  sees, 
by  the  autoanalysis,  almost  without  interpretation  by  the  edu- 
cator, a case,  which  unfortunately  does  not  always  occur. 

To  illustrate  the  elimination  of  a very  painful,  and  for  the 
moral  development,  dangerous  phobia,  I submit  the  following 
case.  The  hysterical  and  obsessional  neurotic  patient  just  de- 
scribed, underwent,  while  in  the  preparatory  school,  every 
forenoon  about  nine  o’clock,  an  anxiety  condition  which  drove 
him  out  of  school.  Trusted  comrades,  he  begged  imploringly 
to  hold  him  fast.  Father  or  mother  aeompanied  him  daily  to 
the  school  building  which  he  nevertheless  often  left  by  a side 


70 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


door.  When,  after  wild  adventures,  he  had  been  enabled  by 
analysis  to  resume  his  studies,  the  phobia  appeared  again. 
Therefore,  one  day,  I directed  the  patient’s  most  concentrated 
attention  to  the  symptom,  requested  any  association,  even 
though  it  should  be  beside  the  point  and  received  the  following : 
when  the  patient,  years  before,  suffered  severely  from  pollu- 
tions, forenoons  at  nine  o’clock,  an  inspection  of  his  body- 
linen  was  made,  at  which  time,  sharp  rebukes  for  his  masturba- 
tion were  given.  The  teacher,  who  read  at  nine  o’clock,  re- 
minded him  of  his  father,  as  the  strict  teacher  at  that  time  had 
done.  The  former,  like  the  father,  had  remarked : “Nervous 
people  must  sleep  long!”  The  phobia  left  at  once  when  the 
patient,  upon  my  instruction,  kept  the  scenes  with  the  father 
before  his  eyes  when  the  anxiety  condition  appeared.  Here 
too,  the  phobia  is  explained  by  the  splitting  off  of  the  idea  and 
the  appearance  of  the  affect  belonging  to  it  alone.  Results 
which  entreaties,  tears,  threats,  punishments  and  rewards  had 
not  brought  to  pass,  the  analytic  religious  instruction  attained 
with  ease. 

In  all  observations  of  anxiety,  not  organically  conditioned, 
on  closer  examination,  a sexual  inhibition  became  evident. 
This  happened  also  with  the  obsessional  acts  and  ideas,  which, 
as  is  known,  also  punish  with  anxiety  those  disobedient  to  their 
demands.  I give  only  two  examples  which  may  claim  peda- 
gogic interest. 

The  first  was  an  obsessional  neurotic  patient,  a single  man 
of  forty-seven  years,  who  has  had,  since  his  twelfth  year,  an 
unbelievably  obstinate  struggle  against  the  number  thirteen. 
His  suffering  compelled  him  to  leave  the  preparatory  school 
and  has  muddled  his  whole  life.  He  must  constantly  take  the 
number  into  consideration : every  thirteen  minutes  before  and 
after  an  hour  brings  an  attack  of  anxiety,  likewise,  every  posi- 
tion of  the  hands  of  the  clock,  which  yields  thirteen,  for  ex- 
ample, 8:23  (sum).  Other  situations  which  call  forth  anxiety 
are — to  select  a few  from  hundreds  of  cases : it  strikes  eleven 
o’clock,  two  persons  are  in  the  room,  or  the  clock  points  to 
eight,  five  persons  are  sitting  at  table.  He  cannot  stay  away 


OBSESSIONS 


71 


from  home  thirteen  hours.  The  whole  month  of  March,  1910, 
is  an  unlucky  month  in  which  he  can  undertake  nothing  im- 
portant, likewise  February,  1911,  etc.  The  hours  from  five 
to  eight  o ’clock  are  dismal  because  of  their  sum,  26  = 2 x 13. 
Every  thirteen  lines  of  a letter,  every  number  thirteen  in  addi- 
tions, brings  torment.  Not  only  the  houses  numbered  13,  but 
also  all  persons  dwelling  in  these,  he  must  avoid.  Many  times, 
the  anxiety  is  traced  back  to  the  fateful  number  by  very  arti- 
ficial connections. 

Further,  the  highly  intensive  religious  life  of  the  patient  is 
influenced  by  the  number  13.  Every  thirteenth  verse  of  a 
chapter  is  unlucky.  A section  which  begins  with  verse  13  af- 
fords no  consolation.  Because  a song  of  Gellert  stands  in  the 
song-book  as  No.  13,  he  can  read  no  other  of  the  same  poet. 

Most  noteworthy  is  the  prohibition  to  go  to  bed  at  ten 
o’clock.  Every  evening,  he  must  say  three  prayers,  which 
makes  with  the  hour  again  thirteen.  The  prayers  are : 

1.  “Now  I go  again  in  God’s  power 
In  Christ’s  strength 

In  Jesus’  blood 

That  no  evil  one  may  do  me  harm. 

In  the  name  of  the  Father,  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
of  the  Father  (sic).” 

2.  “Guard  me  and  protect  me,  my  God,  my  soul  and  my 
body,  my  honor  and  my  property,  guard  me,  God,  my  dear 
father,  guard  me,  God,  my  dear  mother,  guard  me  God, 
. . . . brother,  sister,  acquaintance  and  relative, 
that  I beg  of  you,  my  God  in  Heaven!  Amen.”  The 
father  had  died  twelve  years  before,  the  mother  fifteen.) 

3.  “Great  God,  forgive  me  my  grievous  sins!  Amen.” 
The  following  things  serve  for  defence : avoidance  of  critical 
situations,  selection  of  favorable  times,  in  particular,  however, 
consideration  of  a church  clock. 

The  connection  with  sexuality  was  easily  seen : Before  the 
outbreak  of  the  illness,  the  boy  tormented  himself,  even  to 
melancholia,  with  reproaches  and  vain  struggles  against  onan- 
ism, to  which  two  men  had  misled  him.  All  his  lifetime,  he 


72 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


was  tremendously  afraid  of  pollutions  and  considered  sexual 
intercourse  a cause  of  weakness  and  insanity.  Besides,  the 
question  troubled  him  whether  abstinence  might  not  also  be 
injurious.  Countless  times,  the  very  wealthy  and  handsome 
man  attempted  to  become  engaged  but  found  himself  every 
time  forced  to  back  out.  Strong  was  his  constantly  suppressed 
desire  to  compare  his  sexual  member  with  that  of  others. 

Without  doubt,  the  disease  is  nevertheless  determined  in  its 
form  mostly  by  the  parents.  With  the  austere,  superstitious 
father,  who  chastised  him  sharply,  he  always  got  along  badly. 
So  much  the  more  fervently,  did  he  love  the  mother,  who  suf- 
fered from  anxiety  and  obsessional  washing.  Both  parents 
feared  the  number  13.  But  also,  in  relation  to  the  parents, 
sexuality  played  a role : from  the  sight  of  the  parents  with  few 
clothes  on,  the  child  felt  himself  powerfully  repelled  and  cried 
out  in  anxiety  if  the  mother  had  to  rise  in  the  night  and  went  to 
the  bed  of  his  brother. 

The  analysis  was  not  completed,  for  my  visitor  wished  only 
a cure  by  prayer  from  me  and  would  not  submit  to  the  demands 
of  an  analytic  treatment.  The  therapeutic  result  was  a priori 
doubtful. 

The  other  case  is  that  of  a sixteen  year  old  boy  of  good  en- 
dowment, who  for  ten  years  had  been  compelled  to  hold  his 
hands  out  of  the  water  when  in  a warm  bath  and  got  into  the 
greatest  excitement  if  he  was  prevented  from  this.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  trouble,  three  years  ago,  the  physician  prescribed 
carbonic  acid  baths  for  him  with  slight  results.  The  reaction 
experiment  (“Water-Snake”)  immediately  aroused  the  sus- 
picion that  something  had  happened  to  him  in  the  bath  w'hich 
had  some  connection  with  the  virile  member.  As  a matter 
of  fact,  it  turned  out  that  the  baths  in  common  with  his  father 
had  left  behind  the  impression  that  there  was  something  hor- 
rible in  the  water.  Without  the  slightest  suggestion  from  my 
side,  the  memory  recalled  by  the  patient  himself  in  this  connec- 
tion sufficed  to  banish  the  obsession. 

The  continuation  presupposes  previous  knowledge  of  sym- 
bolism. I therefore  beg  the  reader  to  leave  the  psychological 


SYMPTOM  ANALYSIS 


73 


means  out  of  consideration  and  to  pay  attention  only  to 
whether,  without  suggestive  illusion,  sexual  roots  of  the  neuro- 
sis were  found.  The  youth,  in  whom  we  recognize  the  brother 
of  the  clucking  Princess  Hadwig  (see  above  page  33),  for 
years  tossed  plates,  glasses  and  food  into  the  air,  to  put  them 
down  again  at  once.  This,  he  did,  however,  only  when  one  of 
the  sisters,  especially  the  younger  one,  who  is  known  to  us, 
was  present.  The  sight  of  the  restless  boy  is  painful.  If  the 
boorish  acting  fellow  is  refused  the  evening  greeting  by  his  sis- 
ter, he  walks  up  and  down  his  room  weeping  for  a long  time. 
The  analysis  of  this  symptom  took  the  following  course : the  boy 
cannot  describe  for  me  with  certainty  the  action  practiced 
countless  times  daily  for  years  (with  few  exceptions).  I had 
it  demonstrated  by  the  other  members  of  the  family.  Then  I 
called  the  youth  himself  to  produce  the  motion  with  closed 
eyes  and  sharp  apperception  and  received  this : “It  reminds 
me  always  of  the  leaping-bugs,  crabs  and  fleas.”  [Leaping- 
bugs!]  “Little  insects  which  jump  very  often.  These  I 
found  once  in  X.”  [X!]  “ There,  I found  for  the  first  time 

‘impatiens  noli  me  tangere.’  (The  mother  afterwards  sub- 
stantiated that  the  fruit  of  this  plant  had  made  a great  im- 
pression upon  the  boy  at  that  time  six  years  old ; the  boy  knew 
the  meaning  of  the  name.)  They  jump  just  like  little  leaping 
crabs.”  [Crabs.]  “At  the  time  when  I would  eat  no  fish  I 
would  also  eat  no  crabs.  Before,  I had  eaten  a fish,  a flounder, 
the  member  of  which  had  struck  me  unpleasantly.”  (A 
sterotyped  dream  in  which  a dragon  and  indeed  a composite 
figure  of  flounder  and  flying  dragon  had  given  the  boy  anxiety 
some  six  years  before,  likewise  went  back  to  that  experience.) 
[Fleas.]  “And  cicadas,  they  all  jump  alike.  I think  that 
my  habit  arose  still  earlier  from  the  crabs  because  these  always 
excited  me.”  [Did  a sexual  organ  in  the  crabs  impress  you?] 
“No  indeed — still,  the  hind  parts  of  the  crabs  in  question,  from 
which  one  drew  the  shell,  was  wormshaped  like  the  member  of 
the  flounder.”  (He  showed  me  in  his  collection  the  different 
animals,  the  similarity  of  which  was  important  to  him.)  [The 
fear  of  crabs  and  the  impression  of  the  “leaping  bugs”  are 


74 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


thus  sexually  conditioned.  The  latter  led  you  before  to  “noli 
me  tangere !”]  “ That  is  probably  also  sexually  conditioned : 

it  is  called:  do  not  touch  the  snake  ( !)  (Hence  the  gestures 
in  the  bath.)  The  fruits  of  the  ‘noli  me  tangere’  are  worm 
shaped ; upon  being  cracked  open,  they  roll  up.  My  movement 
only  occurs  when  the  family  is  present,  never  in  my  room.” 
[Thus,  when  the  sister,  with  whom  you  were  morbidly  in  love, 
or  are  now,  somewhat,  was  also  near  you.  Her  presence  makes 
you  lustful,  you  wish  to  repress  this  instinct.  From  this  con- 
flict, proceeds  the  action.]  “That  is  possible.” 

It  is  seen  that  the  patient,  on  account  of  my  interpretation, 
given  in  the  end  by  himself,  which,  by  exercising  greater  pa- 
tience, I could  quite  well  have  let  him  find  himself,  was  not  yet 
completely  convinced.  Nevertheless,  the  somewhat  summary 
method  was  sufficient:  From  that  same  evening,  the  painful 
habit  has  disappeared  for  good. 

Of  other  obsessional  acts,  only  one  may  be  mentioned : The 
patient  could  endure  no  open  drawers,  especially,  when  nap- 
kins rolled-up  lay  therein.  The  latter,  in  general,  he  gladly 
let  alone.  [Think  of  the  drawer  in  imagination !]  “I  see  the 
napkins  rolled  up  in  it.  My  napkin-ring  suddenly  disap- 
peared. It  bore  a picture  of  X”  (the  place  where  you  found 
the ‘noli  me  tangere’).  [Goon.]  “Plants  and  crabs.  . . . 
The  rolled  up  napkins  had  much  the  same  form  as  the  fruit 
of  the  noli  me  tangere.  Accordingly,  napkins  entirely  open, 
make  no  impression  on  me,  rather  only  closed  ones.  You  see 
here  a representation  of  the  noli  me  tangere.  When  the  fruits 
are  opened,  they  roll  up  like  the  napkins.” 

From  this  hour,  the  obsessional  impulse  was  definitely 
eliminated,  still  the  napkins  (“Noli  me  tangere  = touch  me 
not”)  were  left  lying  open  for  some  weeks  longer  until  I called 
the  boy’s  attention  to  the  reason  for  the  omission.  The  attitude 
toward  the  sister  also  became  normal. 

Also  in  hysterical  symptoms,  the  sexual  basis  is  often  in 
plain  view.  An  eighteen  year  old  pupil  has  suffered  for  three 
weeks  from  severe  blinking  of  the  eyelids  (tic  nerveux).  The 
under  lid  of  one  eye  is  automatically  drawn  sideways.  Asked 


UNTRUTHFULNESS 


75 


concerning  the  way  it  originated,  he  says,-  that  at  that  time, 
he  nibbed  a bit  of  coal  dust  out  of  his  eye.  Having  his  attention 
sharply  fixed  on  this  occurrence,  he  remembered  that  he  had 
formerly  seen  a girl  who  winked  in  this  way  and  thought  at  that 
time  she  might  have  injured  her  nerves  by  bad  habits.  He 
himself  struggled  in  vain  against  masturbation  which  he  con- 
sidered a disgrace.  So  far  the  associations.  If  we  have  under- 
stood the  metaphorical  meaning  of  many  symptoms,  then  we 
shall  not  consider  it  farfetched  if  we  consider  the  automatism 
as  a representation  of  the  unconscious  motive.  “The  sexual 
misdeed  is  removed  like  the  soot  from  my  eye.”  The  tic  dis- 
appeared from  that  moment.* 

Some  examples  among  healthy  individuals  which  are  in- 
structive for  educators,  may  follow: 

TJntruthfulness.  A member  of  my  parish  asked  me  to  give 
him  the  name  of  an  educational  institution  to  which  he  could 
take  his  untruthful  foster-daughter.  The  sixteen  year  old  girl 
spread  the  rumor  that  she  was  attacked  with  obscene  and  vul- 
gar expressions  by  him,  the  foster-father,  and  a certain  pastor. 
Also  in  other  matters,  she  lies  with  unbelievable  impudence  and 
obstinacy.  I explained  to  the  man  that  first  the  mental  status 
of  the  delinquent  should  be  determined  before  the  question  of 
institutional  care  could  be  decided.  The  conversation  with  the 
young  sinner  revealed  the  following  particulars,  almost  all 
of  which  I could  substantiate  as  authentic : 

The  girl  spoke  to  the  pastor  she  accused  only  once  and  was 
kindly  treated  by  him.  She  loves  him  because  the  youth  who 
has  gone  abroad,  on  whom  she  has  cast  her  eye,  is  strongly  at- 
tached to  the  man.  The  little  liar  maligns,  in  the  manner 
described,  only  men  with  whom  she  is  in  love.  From  the  un- 
truthfulness, which  came  over  her  in  her  twelfth  year,  she  gets 
no  advantage.  Sobbing,  she  reports  that  she  often  has  to  weep 
in  bed  because  she  lies  so  terribly,  and  seems  unworthy  of 

* Such  brief  analyses  afford  the  beginner  a certain  satisfaction,  but 
not  the  psychologist  and  thorough  worker.  I would  not  present  them 
as  models  to  be  copied,  but  wish  rather  that  the  reader  consider  the 
analysis  as  a really  tedious,  slow  and  difficult  educational  work.  (See 
Chapter  XXIV). 


76 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


instruction  for  confirmation.  Often,  she  prays  to  God  for 
freedom  from  her  faults  but  the  next  day,  everything  goes  just 
so  much  the  worse.  In  the  house  of  the  pastor  who  gave  her 
religious  instruction,  she  suffered,  while  climbing  the  stairs, 
such  violent  anxiety  that  she  could  scarcely  leave  the  spot. 

The  latter  occurrence,  as  well  as  the  violent  trembling  of 
the  guilty  girl  during  her  confession  and  the  content  of  the  lies, 
show  us  the  hysterical,  obsessional  character  of  the  untrutlif  ul- 
ness  in  queston.  The  slanders  express  a wishf ulfillment : 
The  little  girl  would  like  to  be  attacked  and  treated  as  a pros- 
titute by  the  passionately  loved  men.  But  she  represses  the 
wish  which  now  comes  forth  as  a demon  from  within,  with  ir- 
resistible power  in  the  form  of  evil  reports.  The  vain  love 
changes  into  hate  and  gratifies  itself  in  phantastic  verbal  vio- 
lence. The  untruthfulness  was  just  as  old  as  the  masturba- 
tion and  expresses  the  tendency  to  conceal  and  dissimulate  a 
fault,  whereby  she  refrained  from  actual  delinquency. 

Kindly  instruction  concerning  these  connections  brought  an 
immediate  end  to  the  lying  impulse.  Not  a single  untruth  more 
was  observed  in  the  following  months,  to  the  astonishment  of 
the  foster-parents.  That  which  requests  and  punishments, 
self-reproaches  and  prayers  had  not  attained,  was  accomplished 
by  the  analytic  pedagogy  with  ease,  while  a reformatory  insti- 
tution would  perhaps  only  have  made  matters  worse. 

Kleptomania.  A seventeen  year  old  pupil  feels  an  irresist- 
ible compulsion  to  steal  a rubber  ring  (bicycle  tire)  in  his  store, 
although  he  possesses  no  bicycle  and  must  assume  that  his  theft 
will  come  to  light.  After  a long  struggle,  he  succumbs.  He 
steals  the  tube,  plays  with  it  in  great  excitement  for  some 
minutes,  and  indifferently  sends  it  to  a comrade.  His  action 
was  punished  by  dismissal.  He  overwhelmed  himself  with  re- 
proaches and  believes  himself  a born  criminal  since  he  com- 
mitted the  crime  against  his  will  and  involved  his  father  in  a 
dishonesty.  Other  emotional  complications  appeared,  sleep- 
lessness prevented  peace  of  mind  and  thus  there  has  existed  for 
a long  time  severe  melancholia. 

The  “thief  against  his  will”  had  repressed  masturbation  and 


CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS  77 

therefore  indulged  his  evil  passions  in  a symbolical  phantom, 
the  tube. 

The  female  counterpart  to  the  male  symbol  just  mentioned, 
excited  another  of  my  pupils.  The  eighteen  year  old  lad,  in 
broad  daylight,  in  spite  of  the  high  probability  of  being  dis- 
covered, unscrewed  from  a bicycle  in  front  of  a butcher-shop 
the  clasp  in  which  the  pump  should  be  carried.  The  youth, 
who  was  of  an  excellent  and  well-to-do  family,  wa 3 also  caught. 
Shortly  before,  he  had  attempted  to  observe  his  mother  in  the 
bath-room. 

These  results  confirm  those  of  Otto  Gross,  Stekel,*  Riklin 
and  others.  He  who  knows  the  exigency  of  many  kleptomani- 
acs, will  wish  that  a teacher,  trained  in  analysis,  may  very  soon 
meet  the  unfortunates.  Thieves  who  are  ethically  defective, 
in  whom,  from  birth,  the  moral  consciousness  is  lacking,  are 
not  considered  in  this  category. 

Cruelty  to  Animals  and  Passion  for  Destroying  Things. 

A candidate  for  confirmation,  aged  sixteen  years,  who  has  be- 
come estranged  from  God,  the  world  and  himself,  the  son  of 
a luetic,  confessed  to  me  his  self-danger.  One  day,  he  sees  a 
charming  kitten  sitting  in  the  sun.  At  once,  there  awakens  in 
him  the  burning  desire  to  maltreat  it.  A fearful  unrest  seized 
him  until  he  had  procured  a stick  and  struck  the  sleeping 
animal  on  the  nose  with  all  his  strength.  The  young  cat  was 
half  dead  from  pain  and  fright  but  the  boy  had  a strong  feeling 
of  pleasure.  Gratified,  he  made  off.  Another  time,  he  felt 
compelled  in  the  empty  school-room,  to  destroy  the  mantle  of 
a Welschbach  burner  and  again  experienced  a kind  of  sexual 
orgasm.  Flies,  he  maltreated  to  as  slow  death  as  possible. 

The  same  boy  loves  games  in  which  he  is  tormented.  He 
gladly  allows  himself  as  captured  Indian  to  be  bound  to  the 
martyr’s  stake  and  urges  his  companions  to  draw  the  bands 
still  tighter,  to  throw  things  at  him  still  more  recklessly.  In 
the  torture  he  feels  the  sweetest  delight. 

Cat  and  gas-mantle  represent,  as  so  often  in  dreams,  male 

* W.  Stekel,  “Die  sexuelle  Wurzel  der  Kleptomanie.”  Zeitschrift 
flir  Sexualwissenschaft,  1908,  pp.  588-600. 


78 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


and  female  sexual  objects.  The  young  sadist  practiced  mutual 
onanism  with  his  younger  brother  but  gave  it  up  from  con- 
siderations of  health.  The  animal  represents  to  him,  the 
brother,  whom  his  passion  seeks.  The  rod  signifies  in  his  vul- 
gar speech,  the  male  organ.  On  the  sister,  the  mantle-destroyer 
projects  incestuous  phantasies.  The  damming  up  of  the  sexual 
desire  violently  inflates  the  sadistic-masochistic  instinctive  tend- 
ency. 

One  sees  from  our  example,  how  invertedly  those  pedagogues 
act  who  subject  every  tormentor  of  animals  to  corporal  punish- 
ment. They  wish  to  enforce  sympathy  with  the  animal ’s  feel- 
ings of  discomfort.  Very  many  tormentors  of  animals  are, 
however,  sadists,  consequently  also,  more  or  less  masochists, 
and  obtain  from  painful  punishment  only  that  which  gratifies 
them  and  strengthens  their  cruel  instincts. 

Aversion  to  Work.  A girl  of  eighteen,  who  is  engaged, 
willingly  performs  all  the  duties  of  the  housewife  except  clean- 
ing windows  which  is  revolting  to  her.  The  symbolism  of  the 
window  so  frequently  demonstrable  in  dreams,  solves  the 
riddle.  It  has  to  do  with  the  repression  of  masturbation. 
Freedom  from  the  symptom  resulted  immediately  from  the 
analysis. 

Symptomatic  Acts.  He  who  engages  for  a long  time  in  the 
analysis  of  apparently  meaningless  gestures,  which  constantly 
recur,  gradually  becomes  able  to  read  intimate  secrets  with 
certainty  from  these  stereotyped  habits. 

A fifteen  year  old  pupil  was  accustomed  to  make  frequently 
a peculiar  grimace,  in  which  he  turned  up  his  nose  and  finished 
it  with  the  outstretched  index  finger  under  it.  Often  also,  he 
drew  the  chin  down  and  scratched  under  the  right  corner  of 
the  mouth.  One  day  as  I was  speaking  from  the  text:  ‘Sin 
is  at  the  gate/  I decided  to  send  up  a little  analytic  exploring 
balloon.  Glancing  indifferently  at  the  boy,  I spoke  of  the  temp- 
tation to  lying,  cheating,  stealing  and  boasting.  The  boy’s 
face  remained  unchanged.  Still,  as  I pointed  out  that  unfortu- 
nately, obscene,  evil  things  were  spoken  and  done,  his  finger 
shot  under  his  nose  and  scratched  according  to  his  habit.  At 


SYMPTOM  ANALYSIS 


79 


the  end  of  the  hour,  in  repetition,  I repeated  the  experiment 
with  the  same  result. 

Although  I knew  already  that  a severe  conflict  was  troubling 
the  pupil,  I did  not  urge  my  help.  I knew  for  a certainty  that 
the  boy  would  tell  of  himself.  Nine  months  later,  he  appeared 
and  asked  my  aid.  The  turning  up  of  the  nose  expressed  dis- 
gust at  an  odor.  The  outstretched  finger  closed  the  one  nostril 
to  protect  him  and  simultaneously  expressed  symbolically  the 
cause  of  the  unpleasant  exhibition.  The  youth  had  mastur- 
bated. The  odor  of  semen  was  repulsive  to  him  and  yet  he 
longed  for  it.  Hence,  the  one  nostril  was  held  shut,  while  he 
breathed  through  the  other.  A similar  compromise  was  be- 
trayed by  the  action  of  the  finger  which  passed  as  female  sym- 
bol, thereby  refusing  cohabitation.  (Similar  phantasies  and 
symptomatic  acts  are  often  found  in  impotent  individuals.  By 
picking  the  nose,  in  spite  of  all  commands  to  the  contrary,  or 
when  a youth  is  all  the  time  sticking  his  finger  through  his  but- 
tonhole, no  matter  how  much  the  teacher  admonishes  against 
it,  the  analytic  teacher  knows  that  the  appetite  of  the  lustful 
one  knows  no  limit  in  his  phantasies.) 

The  scratching  at  a corner  of  the  mouth  went  back  to  an 
ulcer  which  my  pupil  had  long  had  in  that  place  and  in  maso- 
chistic inordinate  desire,  did  not  allow  to  heal.  The  defect  in 
good  looks  vexed  the  somewhat  vain  boy  and  he  wishes  it  away. 
Now,  as  he  torments  himself  with  reproaches  because  of  mastur- 
bation, he  makes  use  of  the  earlier  material : Like  the  earlier, 
so  also  may  the  present  defects  be  banished.  Also  here,  the 
same  finesse  as  in  the  mimicry  in  the  nasal  zone : The  scratch- 
ing keeps  up  the  defect  which  should  still  be  eliminated.  There- 
by, the  wish  is  expressed  to  practice  masturbation  and  still  be 
freed  from  the  blemish.  If  this  favorable  outcome  appeared 
in  the  physical  defect  why  not  in  the  moral?  The  gesture 
ceased  front  that  hour. 

2.  Repressed  Material  Pounded  on  Erotic  Conflicts 

Frequently,  the  educator,  while  investigating  a disturbance 
of  moral  conduct,  a psychogenic  (=  mentally  caused)  physical 


80 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


symptom  or  some  other  repression  symptom,  comes  upon  emo- 
tional conflicts.  Many  times,  upon  deep  investigation,  he  finds 
behind  the  disturbance  of  the  relation  to  the  parents,  brothers 
or  sisters,  comrades  or  other  companions,  still  another  com- 
plication which  we  designate  as  sexual  in  the  sense  of  the  ordi- 
nary narrow  speech  usage.  It  is,  however,  not  always  the  case, 
so  that  we  shall  speak  of  a sexual  etiology  only  when  we  trace 
back  the  eroticism  in  general,  especially  the  love  to  the  parents 
and  other  people,  exclusively  or  predominantly  to  sexual  ex- 
periences. 

According  to  my  view,  love  toward  other  people,  even  at  the 
very  first,  is  dependent  on  the  instinct  for  the  preservation  of 
the  race ; as  I do  not  make  the  latter  synonymous  with  sexuality, 
however,  (compare  Chapter  VIII,  1)  so  I cannot  designate  that 
love  as  sexual.  Further,  the  eroticism  is  established,  in  good 
part,  on  the  cultivation  of  the  ego  emotions.  That,  also  in  the 
eroticism,  energies  which  once  belonged  to  sensuality,  are  con- 
stantly utilized,  is  in  no  way  denied  by  this  statement. 

A girl  of  about  eighteen  years,  who  was  sent  to  me  because 
of  antipathy  against  all  people,  with  the  exception  of  one  girl 
comrade,  and  distaste  for  life,  showed,  soon  after  entrance  into 
ihe  school  (age  of  7 to  8 years),  strong  dislike  towards  parents 
and  companions.  The  latter  she  avoided  and  at  about  twelve 
years  of  age,  displayed  an  aggressive  scornful  behavior  toward 
them.  In  the  first  period,  she  frequently  had  a stereotyped 
anxiety  dream:  “On  a straight  road,  she  goes  between  two 
swamps,  from  which  many  hands  are  extended  toward  her  to 
pull  her  down.  ” The  analysis  easily  revealed : The  other  pup- 
ils laughed  at  the  child  who  still  believed  in  the  Christ  child  and 
the  angels  who  bring  children  and  informed  her  that  the  mother 
carries  the  baby  in  her  body  and  if  she  could  not  quiet  her 
child,  they  cut  off  her  breasts.  Still  other  hateful  ideas,  they 
brought  to  the  terrified  child.  In  the  dream,  there  is  indicated 
the  wish  to  allow  herself  to  be  pulled  down  by  her  companions 
of  same  age  into  the  swamp  of  obscene  ideas  and  probably  also 
Of  acts,  but  at  the  same  time,  the  still  stronger  desire  to  escape 
from  them.  From  her  twelfth  year,  after  reading  a book  about 


SEXUAL  ENLIGHTENMENT 


81 


Buffalo  Bill,  the  girl  often  dreamed  she  was  an  Indian  chieftain 
and  killed  a crowd  of  Pale  Faces.  The  masochism  is  alter- 
nated by  sadism.  In  her  homosexual  phantasy,  the  outlaw 
knows  how  to  avenge  herself  grimly,  which  corresponds  to 
her  conduct  in  reality,  only  that  life  imposes  limits  on  the 
hate. 

Would  the  whole  attitude  toward  humanity  and  life  not  have 
taken  another  direction  if  a sensible  enlightenment  on  the  part 
of  the  mother  had  been  given  at  the  proper  moment?  The 
well-meaning  woman  spared  no  sacrifice  for  her  daughter  whom 
she  educated  affectionately  and  intelligently  regarding  other 
things.  But  her  endeavors  went  to  pieces  on  the  repression. 
Since  symptoms  of  dementia  praecox  were  present,  the  girl 
was  taken  by  me  to  an  analytic  psychiatrist  and  apparently 
cured  by  him,  at  least  she  has  remained  perfectly  normal  for 
more  than  a year. 

A girl  pupil  of  fifteen  years  complained  of  peculiar  sensa- 
tions in  the  hands  and  feet,  which  cause  her  to  seek  her  bed 
immediately.  Upon  the  report  of  sudden  illness  or  unexpected 
death,  she  got  into  violent  excitement  and  trembled  in  her 
whole  body.  I commanded  her  to  concentrate  her  attention 
on  the  prickling  places  and  give  her  next  association.  “My 
friend.  I am  so  fond  of  her.”  [And  she  of  you?]  “Just  as 
fond.”  [Press  the  places  on  the  hands  which  have  the  crawl- 
ing sensation.]  “Again  this  friend.”  Somewhat  later  she 
related  the  dream  of  the  night  before.  ‘ * I was  going  along  the 
street.  Someone  embraced  me.”  [Think  of  the  place  in  the 
street.]  “I  know  it.  I met  the  friend  there  yesterday.”  It 
turned  out  that  the  little  hysteric  in  the  presence  of  her  friend 
felt  an  uncontrollable  desire  to  embrace  her.  The  girl  is  going 
away  soon,  my  pupil  fears  she  will  be  forgotten  and  left  en- 
tirely alone.  The  tactile  hallucination  gratifies  the  need  for 
affection  (Moll’s  Kontrektation).  Now  it  was  explained  also 
why  the  girl  had  felt  the  phenomenon  so  vividly  the  second 
day  previously  when  the  mother  remained  away  so  long  and  a 
longing  for  her  broke  out.  With  the  mother,  the  child  does 
not  get  along  well  but  eagerly  wishes  for  her  affection. 


82 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Further,  the  excitement  upon  the  news  of  sudden  illness  and 
death,  brings  forth  the  memory  of  a friend.  Two  years  before, 
she  played  one  day  in  the  bed  of  a little  sick  companion  whose 
father  had  accidentally  left  his  finger-ring.  Our  patient  put 
the  ring  on  her  own  finger  in  play.  The  comrade  died  unex- 
pectedly that  same  night.  From  that  time,  the  excitement  be- 
gan. Three  years  before,  her  own  luetic  father  had  died  of  a 
disease  which  was  localized  in  the  same  organ  as  that  of  the 
friend.  I forgot  to  ask  whether  the  death  of  this  man,  even 
if  also  long  expected,  had  occurred  suddenly.  Probably  that 
was  the  case. 

Now  when  a shocking  report  of  illness  is  heard,  the  memory 
of  the  analogous  previous  experience  is  not  awakened,  but 
merely  the  accompanying  affect,  the  anxiety.  The  idea  be- 
longing to  this  affect,  as  is  often  observed  in  similar  cases,  re- 
mains repressed. 

In  this  description  of  the  occasions  for  anxiety,  sexuality 
exercises  a decisive  role.  The  inhibition  of  the  emotional 
forces  seems  to  turn  the  scale.  Now,  however,  the  girl  relates 
an  anxiety  dream  which  she  had  immediately  after  the  death  of 
her  father,  in  which  dream,  the  latter  plays  a role.  The  anal- 
ysis was  not  possible  since  unfortunately,  after  the  one  con- 
versation, the  symptoms  disappeared  without  leaving  a trace, 
unfortunately,  since  a real  unraveling  of  the  conflicts  still 
present  would  have  been  necessary.  Still,  it  is  probable, — 
we  will  later  show  the  origin  of  the  anxiety — that  behind  the 
dream,  unsatisfied  sexual  desires  existed.  After  another  half 
year  of  complete  health,  slight  distaste  for  life  appeared  and  the 
well  known  hysterical  jealousy  toward  a sister  had  in  the 
meantime  planted  a grudge  against  me  so  that  I was  shunned. 
The  earlier  symptoms  remained  absent.- 

This  sister,  aged  twenty,  suffered,  besides  from  many  easily 
removed  hysterical  obsessions  (mild  squinting,  turning  of  the 
head,  twitching  of  the  comer  of  the  mouth  and  melancholia) 
from  a very  unpleasant  phenomenon,  an  obsessional  love.  In 
her  pastor,  who  had  confirmed  her,  she  was,  in  spite  of  his 
earnest  remonstrances,  immoderately  in  love,  so  much  the 


OBSESSIONAL  LOVE 


88 


more  as  she  struggled  against  it.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in 
solemn  moments,  especially  in  church,  she  had  to  laugh,  for 
which,  in  the  pension,  she  was  repeatedly  punished  in  vain. 

The  girl  related  that  from  her  childhood,  she  was  greatly 
slighted  by  her  father  and  hence  disliked  him.  She  also  dis- 
liked her  mother.  When  something  was  to  be  shared,  she 
never  seemed  to  get  her  rights.  Toward  her  numerous  sisters, 
she  was  envious. 

The  first  obsessional  laughing  occurred  during  the  funeral 
sermon  which  the  pastor  preached  at  her  father’s  bier  and  in- 
deed following  the  remark,  how  sad  it  was  that  the  father  had 
to  be  separated  from  so  large  a family.  The  instruction  for 
confirmation,  the  girl  sought  gladly,  only  she  hated  the  teacher 
since  he  praised  her  too  little,  but  she  rejoiced  greatly  over 
every  word  of  recognition.  The  ceremony  of  confirmation  ex- 
cited her  to  laughter  when  the  speaker  said:  “And  you, 
Father,  and  you,  Mother,  do  you  not  rejoice  at  the  sight  of 
your  daughter?” 

Removed  to  a distance,  our  pupil  fell  passionately  in  love 
with  a woman  teacher  who  showed  her  kindness,  kissed  her 
every  evening  and,  especially  on  days  of  illness,  overwhelmed 
her  with  attentions.  Much  speaks  in  favor  of  the  illness  itself 
representing  an  extortion  of  tenderness.  The  previously  strong 
religion  suddenly  disappeared  at  that  time,  to  reappear  again 
as  quickly  after  the  separation  from  the  passionately  loved 
one. 

After  the  return  home,  she  acted  coldly  toward  the  pastor 
until  he,  one  evening  (probably  accidentally),  pressed  her  hand 
in  friendly  fashion,  but  on  the  other  hand,  overlooked  her 
sister  and  friend  who  were  standing  close  by.  From  that  hour, 
she  loved  him  passionately.  Plainly,  she  found  in  him  again 
the  longed-for  father  as  she  had  before  hated  him  as  such. 
The  obsessional  laughing,  the  beginning  of  which  was  expressed 
by  the  twitching  of  the  corner  of  the  mouth,  betrayed  the 
gratification  over  the  father’s  death  and  especially  the  mali- 
cious joy  toward  the  sisters. 

In  this  report,  there  is  lacking  the  proof  of  sexual  factors. 


84 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


But  we  see  that  this  patient  also  leaves  us  in  the  lurch  since 
she  lost  her  obsessional  love  after  the  second  session  and  in  a 
base  attack  captured  the  lover  of  her  elder  favored  sister.  If 
one  finds  a scientific  explanation  among  cured  patients  of 
this  class,  still,  upon  closer  investigation,  one  discovers  a num- 
ber of  other  conditions,  since  every  neurosis  possesses  a very 
complicated  bundle  of  roots.  That  also  in  our  case,  a sexual 
cause  was  decisively  at  work,  we  could  only  assert  if  we  were 
sure  that  the  decidedly  sexually  colored  love  toward  the  pas- 
tor was  an  unchanged  new  edition  of  that  toward  the  father. 
But  we  have  not  yet  discussed  the  transposition  of  emotion. 

The  following  case  of  stuttering  seems  to  be  conditioned  on 
asexual  eroticism.  A boy  of  sixteen,  candidate  for  confirma- 
tion, could  not  get  beyond  the  beginning  of  his  speech.  After 
violent  effort,  he  produced  a sobbing  tone,  spoke  a few  words 
normally  and  again  stuck  fast.  His  father  is  a drinker.  His 
sister,  ten  years  his  elder,  educated  him  harshly  and  as  it 
seems,  without  love.  She  often  struck  him  and  if  he  broke  out 
crying,  she  increased  the  punishment.  For  years,  the  young- 
ster has  had  no  one  in  whom  he  could  confide  and  felt  himself 
unfortunate  in  life.  Only  at  night  in  bed,  could  he  give  way  to 
weeping,  by  day,  he  throttled  his  suffering.  We  understand 
well  that  the  boy  expresses  his  suffering  in  his  speech  dis- 
turbance and  comes  automatically  to  his  weeping.  But  we 
suspect  further  that  other  material  is  hidden  deeper.  Unfor- 
tunately, after  the  conversation,  the  inhibition  remained  absent 
and  the  boy  likewise.  After  about  a year,  the  evil  returned, 
but  not  bad  enough  to  send  the  deserter  to  me.  At  that  first 
time,  he  had  told  of  improper  acts  of  his  comrades  and  played 
the  dear  innocent.  Probably  he  feared  to  tell  the  whole  truth. 
I cannot  definitely  assert  this,  however. 

It  is  in  no  ways  to  be  wondered  at,  if  many  observers  quickly 
assert  that  no  sexual  motive  was  present  calling  for  careful 
reticence.  I myself  plead  guilty  of  having  originally  lightly 
denied  the  sexual  etiology  in  cases  which  I thought  I could  see 
through,  until  to  my  confusion,  I was  taught  better.  I know 
also  how  uncommonly  difficult  it  often  is  to  penetrate  to  the 


TRAUMATIC  NEUROSIS 


85 


foundation  of  a neurosis*  and  cannot  therefore,  admire  the 
diagnostician  who,  after  two  or  three  or  even  after  one  con- 
sultation, asserts  that  a sexual  etiology  is  not  present.  From 
the  fact  that  in  some  sputum  examinations,  no  bacilli  are 
found,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  patient  in  question  has  none. 

Every  profound  shock  to  the  individual — and  only  such  an 
one  occasions  a neurosis — also  implicates  the  sexual  sphere 
and  is  also  reflected  in  sexual  phantasies,  for  the  psychic  life 
constitutes  an  organism,  in  which  the  suffering  of  one  part 
causes  suffering  in  other  functional  fields.  From  the  existence 
of  sexual  inhibitions,  therefore,  we  may  not  yet  decide  that 
these  have  exclusive  etiological  significance. 

3.  The  Asexual  and  Anerotic  Repressed  Material 
(a)  the  traumatic  neurosis 

Something  which  is  often  urged  against  Freud’s  sexual 
theory  is  the  occurrence  of  traumatic  hysteria.  From  ancient 
times,  it  has  been  believed  that  merely  a terrific  shock  was  suf- 
ficient to  occasion  a nervous  malady.  The  father  of  psycho- 
analysis found  in  such  cases  without  exception,  however,  that 
the  disease  was  prepared  for  by  a sexual  difficulty.  A man  of 
forty-five  years  who  became  ill  from  anxiety  upon  the  report  of 
the  death  of  his  father,  lived,  for  example,  eleven  years  with 
his  wife  in  coitus  interruptus.  This  same  habit  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  consensus  of  opinion  of  all  psychoanalysts,!  is 
very  injurious,  prevailed  in  some  other  examples. 

I,  too,  could  find  such  connections  in  spite  of  my  limited 
experience.  A young  merchant  complained  to  me  that,  as  a 
result  of  a railroad  acident,  he  was  suffering  from  nervous 
trouble.  When  the  accident  happened,  a train  which  he  saw 
coming,  ran  into  his  wagon.  Since  then,  he  repeatedly  hal- 
lucinates this  scene  on  the  road  with  great  anxiety.  Upon  be- 
ing questioned,  he  said  that  he  was  engaged  and  only  gets  an 

‘Wherever  in  this  book,  neurosis  (“nervous  trouble”)  is  mentioned, 
I always  mean  psychoneurosis,  that  is,  one  based  on  mental  complica- 
tions, not  the  neurosis  organically  conditioned. 

t Compare  Freud,  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  71. 


86 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


attack  when,  after  a visit  to  his  fiancee,  he  is  seized  on  his  re- 
turn trip.  The  man  had  a suit  pending  against  the  railroad 
company  for  immense  damages  for  injury  from  this  accident. 
He  did  not  seem  enraptured  with  my  advice  to  have  himself 
cured  by  a physician  skilled  in  psychoanalysis.  The  physician 
would  not  be  one  to  be  envied  as  I know  from  a second,  similar 
case,  the  analysis  of  which  went  to  pieces  on  the  money-hunger 
of  the  victim. 

Nevertheless,  I also  know  traumatic  neuroses  which  pro- 
ceeded smoothly  to  health  without  sexual  material  appearing. 
Of  course,  in  this  case,  a superficial  exploration  was  sufficient, 
so  that  sexual  material  could  very  well  have  remained  hidden. 
An  example : 

A teacher  sent  me  a good-natured  but  poorly-gifted  school 
girl  of  ten  years  for  therapeutic  pedagogic  treatment.  The 
little  one  came  accompanied  by  her  mother.  She  has  suffered 
for  five  weeks  from  complete  paralysis  and  twitching  of  the 
left  arm,  frequently  falls  on  the  left  side,  awakens  every  night 
at  a quarter  to  ten  with  anxiety  and  twitching  of  the  mouth. 
In  the  absence  of  the  child,  I asked  regarding  shocking  ex- 
periences and  learned  that  five  years  before,  an  adult  had 
frightened  the  child  by  seizing  a knife  in  sport,  making  a fright- 
ful grimace  and  threatening  to  kill  the  child.  The  latter  rushed 
to  the  door  and  fled  but  had  to  stay  three  days  in  bed  as  a re- 
sult of  the  fright.  Since  then,  she  has  been  abnormally  timid. 
The  evening  before  the  illness,  the  child  had  been  awakened 
at  a quarter  of  ten  by  the  cries  of  night  rovers. 

The  further  investigation,  I carried  on  with  the  child,  and  in- 
deed at  first  for  some  minutes  in  the  presence  of  the  mother, 
when  I saw  how  confiding  toward  the  mother  she  was  in  her 
presence.  The  child  is  also  very  kindly  disposed  toward  her 
father  and  sister.  [Do  you  remember  the  man  who  threatened 
you  years  ago?]  “Yes,  he  took  a knife  out  of  the  drawer  and 
would  kill  me.”  [No,  no,  he  was  only  fooling,  he  was  a regular 
‘Lappi’  (foolish  fellow),  the  dear  God  keeps  you  safely.  How 
do  you  move  the  arm?]  (The  child  twitched  a few  times, 
swung  the  arm  forward  and  turned  the  hand  outward,  the  three 


SYMPTOM  ANALYSIS 


87 


outer  fingers  being  closed.  The  movement  was  so  quick  that  I 
could  not  clearly  observe  it  and  did  not  at  once  grasp  its  mean- 
ing.) [You  turn  your  hand  as  if  you  would  say  no.]  “Yes.” 
[Do  you  know  how  you  lay  in  bed  when  you  were  awakened 
five  weeks  ago?]  “Yes,  against  the  wall.”  [On  which  side 
of  the  body?]  “On  the  left.”  [And  then?]  “I  wished  to 
spring  up  but  could  not  because  I lay  on  my  arm  and  leg.” 
[And  hence  you  thought  you  could  not  move  the  arm  and  leg? 
Pay  no  attention  to  that  ‘Lappi’  and  think  that  the  singing  boys 
who  behaved  so  foolishly,  would  also  certainly  do  nothing  to 
make  you  suffer.  Here  you  have  three  beautiful  books  which 
you  may  read  if  you  can  carry  them  yourself.]  (The  girl  who 
could  carry  nothing  that  noon  carried  the  books  triumphantly 
away  with  firm  step.) 

Now,  of  course  this  was  not  a regular  analysis.  If  the 
thought  of  critical  psychologists  had  been  in  my  mind,  I would 
have  refrained  from  the  massive  suggestion. 

Three  days  later,  the  mother  and  child  appeared  a second 
time,  the  twitching  of  the  arm  and  failure  of  the  foot  had  al- 
most disappeared,  likewise,  the  pavor  nocturnus  at  a quarter  of 
ten,  still  the  arm  seemed  quite  weak.  In  the  night  following 
our  conversation,  a very  disagreeable  disturbance  had  broken 
out,  in  which  frequent  emptying  of  the  stomach  had  occurred. 
[Do  you  experience  something  nauseating?]  “Yes,  a girl 
would  push  me  into  a nasty  pile.”  (For  two  months,  the 
eruptions  remained  away.) 

The  automatic  distortion  of  the  mouth  went  back  to  censure 
from  the  father.  The  latter  reproached  the  child  because 
spots  were  often  visible  on  the  pillow  and  said  to  her : ‘ ‘ Shame 
on  you ! A big  girl  should  no  longer  sleep  with  her  mouth 
open!”  The  movement  really  only  appeared  when  the  little 
one  was  embarrassed,  for  example,  when  she  could  not  answer 
a question. 

After  this  consultation,  the  child  was  apparently  well.  In 
the  third  session,  we  found  from  the  posture  of  the  fingers, 
and  turning  of  the  hand  that  the  arm  gesture  expressed  the 
wish  to  open  the  door.  The  twitching  of  the  mouth  was  still 


88 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


present  in  slight  degree  but  disappeared  after  a few  days  with- 
out further  analysis. 

A month  later,  the  little  hysteric  wished  to  visit  me.  The 
mother  would  not  grant  it  on  this  day.  Thereupon,  the  child 
vomited  and  obtained  the  mother’s  consent.  For  two  years, 
the  girl  has  been  entirely  well. 

To-day,  I regret  that  I did  not  proceed  in  more  correct 
analytic  manner  and  that  I yielded  so  much  to  suggestion. 
Hence,  I can  give  the  case  neither  for  nor  against  Freud ’s  con- 
ception of  the  sexual  root  of  the  neuroses.* 

Still,  I know  of  a number  of  traumatic  neuroses,  as  for  ex- 
ample, two  cases  of  stuttering  resulting  from  fright  from  a 
glimpse  of  St.  Nicholas.  But  I have  received  no  patients  of 
this  class  for  the  health  pedagogic  treatment  as  yet,  since  the 
parents,  upon  the  appearance  of  such  a phenomenon,  which 
indeed  falls  less  in  the  domain  of  the  moral  life,  have  with 
good  reason  turned  to  the  physician. 

(b)  other  psychoneuroses 

No  single  ease  of  any  other  neurosis  is  known  to  me,  in  which 
the  sexual  or  erotic  disturbance  of  the  mental  equilibrium  has 
been  absent.  Now  and  then,  totally  different  conflicts  stood 
in  the  foreground  but  without  exception,  they  received  a strong 
addition  in  emotional  values  from  the  erotic  sphere,  in  which 
ease,  this  fatal  erotic  situation  was  not  necessarily  founded 
on  abnormally  unfavorable  external  relations.  Often,  the 
inability  to  adapt  to  well  intentioned  and  useful  demands  of 
the  parents,  created  severe  erotic  denial.  Excessive  severity 
on  the  part  of  the  father  or  the  mother  only  sharpens  the 
conflict  but  cannot  occasion  it  if  specific  subjective  conditions 
are  not  present. 

This  may  be  observed  in  two  cases  of  writer’s  cramp.  One 
of  these  was  in  a clerk  of  twenty-nine  years,  who,  a year 
previous,  had  become  ill  under  peculiar  circumstances.  An 
official  of  the  same  name  had  obtained  a leave  of  absence  on 

* Freud  also  considers  the  utilization  of  intentional  suggestion  in 
such  cases  as  proper. 


WRITER’S  CRAMP 


89 


account  of  a nervous  malady;  besides  this,  an  office  girl  was 
absent.  Thus,  there  fell  to  my  patient  for  several  months,  an 
extra  amount  of  work  without  his  being  satisfactorily  rewarded 
therefor.  After  the  return  of  his  colleague,  he  hoped  like- 
wise to  obtain  a leave  of  absence  but  was  refused  his  wish, 
although  he  represented  to  his  chief  that  he,  the  solicitor,  has 
a much  harder  post  than  his  companion,  not  a single  five 
minutes  could  he  write  undisturbed  and  he  was  therefore  much 
more  exposed  to  the  danger  of  a nervous  illness  than  his 
namesake.  The  writer’s  cramp,  he  considered  a harmless  dis- 
turbance which  could  be  easily  cured.  The  wish  for  a non- 
dangerous  nervousness,  he  did  not  remember  plainly,  but 
rather  considered  his  nerves  as  shattered  by  an  unhealed 
venereal  disease. 

With  this  sexual  trouble,  an  erotic  one  interacted.  In  order 
to  escape  an  irregular  life,  he  sought  a wife  by  advertising  in 
the  newspaper  and  began  a love  correspondence  which  he 
maintained  with  bad  conscience.  Inwardly  attached  to  an- 
other girl,  he  feigned  in  his  letters  a love  which  in  reality  did 
not  exist.  When,  now,  the  hope  of  winning  the  one  he  really 
loved,  awakened,  the  resolution  to  break  off  the  unfaithful  re- 
lations failed  him,  since  he  had  already  gone  too  far.  The 
disturbance  in  writing  came,  therefore,  as  in  another  of  the 
cases  observed  and  cured  by  me,*  to  relieve  a deep  need  and 
wish  that  he  might  release  himself  from  the  conflict  between 
desire  and  duty. 

That  the  non-erotic  wish  played  an  important  part,  how- 
ever, is  shown  by  the  development  of  the  disturbance.  So  long 
as  the  hysteric  wished  to  put  off  only  the  burdensome  work, 
his  hand  was  drawn  outward.  Some  months  later,  a change 
appeared : The  pen  jumped  into  the  air  every  few  moments. 
What  had  happened?  The  firm  had  dismissed  him  and  paid 
him  off.  Now,  the  patient  changed  his  plan  so  far  as  to  say 
to  himself,  he  would  not  return  again  to  the  earlier  dependence 
but  seek  something  “higher.”  From  the  beginning,  he  had 
wished  as  rich  a wife  as  possible.  I could  not  discover  that  a 

* See  p.  126. 


90 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


change  in  the  erotic  relations  and  plans  began  when  the  cramp 
changed.  Still,  it  is  not  excluded  that  unconsciously,  a varia- 
tion of  the  erotic  phantasy  was  present.  Since  the  patient 
was  scarcely  suitable  for  pastoral  influence  and  really  be- 
longed to  the  domain  of  the  physician,  I discharged  him  before 
beginning  the  deeper  analysis,  with  the  advice  to  go  to  a 
neurologist.  He  remained  refractory  and  two  years  later  was 
still  uncured. 

Also  in  the  second  of  the  cases  mentioned  here,  the  dis- 
turbance of  writing  met  an  ardent  non-erotic  wish:  The 
youth,  aged  twenty-four,  wished  to  change  his  vocation  but 
could  not  obtain  the  consent  of  his  parents  to  this  end.  Soon, 
it  became  plain  that  the  contracture  formed  only  an  insignifi- 
cant symptom  in  a group  of  very  important  ones.  Preeminent 
was  a strong  suicidal  tendency.  The  neurologist  to  whom  I 
sent  the  patient  at  once  after  this  discovery,  could  not  cure 
the  severe  hysteria;  this  patient  will  repeatedly  engage  our 
attention  later,  since  the  youth  would  not  separate  himself 
from  the  extreme,  fanatical,  orthodox  father  whose  badly 
planned  pedagogical  treatment  caused  and  maintained  the 
disease.* 

This  much,  I believe  I may  say  in  general,  that  a man  who 
is  capable  of  loving  and  whose  compulsion  toward  love  and 
agreement  on  the  part  of  the  parents,  husband,  bride  or  wife 
or  some  near  substitute  for  these,  is  satisfied,  can  suffer  no 
disease-forming  repressions.  Further,  loss  of  property,  lack 
of  recognition,  injuries  to  reputation,  indeed  religious  or 
ethical  considerations,  scruples  and  the  like,  create  only  por- 
tentous deviations  in  the  development  of  a youth  when  a 
severe  sexual  or  erotic  shock  is  joined  to  them. 

We  shall  come  later  to  Adler’s  important  theory  that  all 
neuroses  trace  back  to  feelings  of  insufficiency. 

* Another  youth,  whose  unfortunate  relation  to  his  father  caused 
writer’s  cramp,  I sent  at  once  to  a physician.  The  analysis  was  at 
first  without  results,  since  the  separation  from  the  father,  an  orthodox 
bigot,  had  not  taken  place.  Some  weeks  later,  the  patient  took  a 
position  away  from  the  family  and  immediately  got  well. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  REPRESSING  FORCE 

A repression  can  only  occur  when  an  instinct  is  inhibited. 
This  can  happen  by  reality  rendering  the  activity  of  the  in- 
stinct impossible  or  by  a second  desire  opposing  the  first  one. 

1.  Reality  as  a Factor  in  Repression 

A repression  is  created  by  reality  when  either  a previously 
utilized  instinctive  activity  is  rendered  impossible  by  a change 
in  the  external  world  or  an  instinctive  function,  which  has  be- 
come necessary  to  the  further  development  of  the  individual,  is 
denied.  In  the  first  case,  there  is  a deprivation,  in  the  second, 
an  abstinence. 

(a)  the  deprivation 

If,  on  account  of  the  death  or  unfaithfulness  of  the  beloved 
person  or  other  processes,  an  erotic  relation,  whether  a real 
relation  or  a strong  hope,  is  destroyed,  then  a repression  fre- 
quently appears.  The  person  in  question  wishes  to  drive  the 
tormenting  idea  from  his  mind,  but  thereby  forces  it  under 
the  threshold  of  consciousness,  from  whence  it  continues  most 
unpleasant  activities,  often  just  at  the  time  when  it  pushes 
forward  another  idea.  If  we  are  dealing  with  a deprivation  of 
less  painful  kind  or  if  the  instinct  affected  can  and  will  allow 
of  some  ideal  substitution,  either  of  equal  or  higher  value, 
(compare  Chapter  XVII,  Compensation,  and  Chapter  XI, 
section  5,  Sublimation)  then  the  man  bears  the  loss  without 
pathological  detriment.  It  is  otherwise  in  the  irreparable  in- 
juries of  high  emotional  value  or  in  refusal  of  later  transfer- 
ences. The  latter  condition,  the  refusal  of  a new  love  to  other 

91 


92 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


people,  the  refusal  of  a love  substitute,  is  an  indispensable  con- 
dition of  the  neurosis. 

It  is  known  that  the  death  of  dear  persons,  the  decline  of 
health  with  its  effects  on  the  expectations  of  life  or  similar 
shocks  can  call  forth  severe  emotional  disturbances  or  renun- 
ciation of  reality.  Many  psychoses  break  out  after  a death, 
also  many  withdrawals  from  the  world.  Francis  of  Assisi 
became  a visionary  through  grave  illness,  Raimon  Lull,  upon 
the  sight  of  the  breast  of  his  beloved,  Armand  Jean  le  Bout- 
hillier  de  Ranee,  the  founder  of  the  Trappist  Order,  eaten  by 
ulcers,  made  the  world  a death-house,  after  he  had  met  his 
bride  in  her  coffin  upon  his  return  home. 

On  the  basis  of  numerous  observations,  we  shall  also  derive 
such  processes  from  the  repression.  An  example  which  pre- 
sented itself  in  the  analysis  of  a foreign  lady  in  the  climacteric, 
is  as  follows : 

When  a girl,  eighteen  years  of  age,  she  fell  in  love  with  a 
vivacious  but  somewhat  brutal  man  who  courted  her  sister  but 
was  refused.  After  his  departure,  the  girl,  in  whose  kindred 
and  circle  of  acquaintances  there  was  not  a single  pietist,  de- 
voted herself  to  a passionate  adoration  of  Jesus  which  drew 
her  into  a congenial,  world-fleeing  conventicle.  When  twenty- 
two  years  old,  she  married  a much  older  brother-in-law,  wholly 
because  she  wished  to  be  a good  mother  to  her  nephews.  The 
older  stepson,  an  image  of  the  knightly  father,  she  treated 
with  rare  consideration,  though  without  affection;  with  the 
younger,  an  ungovernable  hotspur,  she  was  in  continual  con- 
flict. As  the  youngster  grew  to  young  manhood,  the  conduct 
of  the  mother  changed  strikingly : she  gained  his  affection  and 
treated  him  tenderly.  One  day,  he  explained  to  her  that  the 
pietistic  Savior,  in  whom  he  had  thus  far  been  taught  to  be- 
lieve, was  becoming  distasteful  to  him,  the  pietistic  mood,  weak. 
To  the  general  astonishment,  the  mother  replied  that  she  had 
felt  the  same  way  for  some  time.  Soon  after,  the  youth  died. 
The  shock  drove  the  mother  into  stoicism  and  after  several 
years,  to  grave  hysteria.  Four  years  of  treatment  according 
to  Dubois  was  without  result.  In  the  meantime,  the  physician 


SUBLIMATIONS 


93 


went  over  to  Freud  but  severed  the  altruistic  sublimations. 
Hence  the  patient  remained  dependent  on  him  and  got  into 
the  greatest  need,  since  she  had  to  hate  the  physician  fiercely 
and  at  the  same  time  to  love  him  and  during  the  conjugal  act, 
had  only  him  before  her  eyes.  She  was  easy  to  cure  in  two 
consultations.  When  by  the  previously  given  analysis,  the 
injurious  transference  had  also  been  dissolved,  an  uncommonly 
strong  piety  set  in,  which  placed  God  as  the  Father  and  his 
social  commands  in  the  center  of  her  life. 

The  connections  are  easy  to  discern:  The  pietistic  Jesus 
is  the  sublimated  contrast-substitute  for  the  loved  one.  The 
libido  flows  back  to  the  stepson  who  resembles  the  lover  so 
that  Jesus  must  be  given  up.  After  the  death  of  the  erotic 
object,  no  new  adoration  of  Jesus  can  ensue  because  this  would 
have  meant  unfaithfulness  to  the  dead.  The  stoicism  shows 
us  the  involution  of  the  libido ; the  hysteria,  the  failure  of  that 
attempt  at  sublimation  in  philosophy.  The  analysis  elimi- 
nated the  fixation  on  the  youthful  loved  one  and  disclosed  the 
transference  upon  the  father,  who,  in  the  figure  of  husband 
and  of  God,  stilled  the  longing  of  the  heart  and  rendered 
possible  a fruitful  social  activity.  Also,  the  frigidity  could  be 
eliminated,  and  thus  the  marriage,  after  twenty-four  years  of 
barrenness,  became  a completely  harmonious  and  happy  one 
after  the  ethical  conflict  had  also  been  removed. 

An  elderly  woman,  some  weeks  after  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band, suddenly  suffered  from  anxiety  that  her  prayers  were 
ineffective,  that  she  could  not  pray  any  more.  As  we  will 
show  in  numerous  examples,  anxiety  is  the  constant  result  of 
unsatisfied  sexual  demands. 

(b)  abstinence 

A repression  may  also  occur  without  external  changes,  when, 
during  normal  processes  of  development,  a hiatus  is  created  be- 
tween subjective  demands  and  objective  allowance.*  The  rise 
of  the  neuroses  and  of  religious  conversions  during  the  period 
of  puberty,  the  increase  of  melancholia  in  the  climacteric  with 

* Freud,  fiber  neurotische  Erkrankungstypen.  Zbl.  II,  p.  299  f. 


94 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


its  intensive  sexual  need,  all  go  back  to  this  process.  “A 
young  man  who  has  previously  gratified  his  libido  (his  ‘love- 
impulse’  [Liebesdrang] ) by  phantasies  with  an  outlet  in 
masturbation  and  now  wishes  to  exchange  this  regime,  which 
is  closely  related  to  autoeroticism,  for  the  real  object  choice,  a 
girl  who  has  directed  her  whole  affection  toward  father  or 
brother  and  now  would  allow  to  become  conscious  for  a man 
who  is  courting  her,  the  hitherto  unconscious,  incestuous 
wishes  of  the  libido,  a woman  who  would  renounce  her  polyga- 
mous tendencies  and  prostitution-phantasies  in  order  to  be- 
come a faithful  wife  to  her  husband  and  a blameless  mother : 
all  these  persons  become  ill  in  their  praiseworthy  efforts  if 
the  earlier  fixations  of  their  libido  are  strong  enough  to  resist 
a displacement.  ’ ’ * 

A single  woman  of  thirty-three  years  became  happily  en- 
gaged to  a virtuous  man  and  held  him  very  dear.  When  she 
would  make  the  bridal  visit  to  his  home  place  and  ascended 
the  stairs  with  him,  she  suddenly  felt  tremendous  anxiety  and 
her  love  vanished  in  an  instant.  She  was  inconsolable  over 
the  loss  of  her  emotion,  especially  as  she  was  happy  before 
and  acted  happy.  He  who  is  acquainted  with  the  symbolism 
of  stair  dreams t or  knows  what  erotic  significance  “mount- 
ing” has  in  the  colloquial  German  speech,  “monter,  grimper” 
in  the  French,  will  not  be  surprised  that  this  act  of  repression 
occurred  on  the  stairs.  My  surmise  that  a dementia  prsecox 
was  present  was  confirmed  by  the  neurologist  called  in  con- 
sultation. After  the  breaking  of  the  engagement,  there  came 
states  of  excitement  with  ideas  of  persecution,  yet  after  some 
months,  health  apparently  returned. 

If  one  examines  such  cases  more  closely,  one  sees  that  the 
external  world  only  causes  a repression  when  there  was  already 
present  beforehand  a strong  internal  tension  which  reaches 
back  even  to  childhood.  The  lady  who  fell  back  upon 
stoicism  had  lost  her  father  very  early  and  suffered  severe 

* Same,  p.  299. 

f Freud,  Traumdeutung,  3rd  ed.,  p.  215  f.  Robitsek,  Leiter  als  sex. 
Symbol  i.  d.  Antike.  Zbl.  I,  p.  586  f. 


MOTIVES  IN  REPRESSION 


95 


sexual  traumata.  The  husband,  whose  character  resembled 
that  of  the  father,  took  the  place  of  a man  who  was  passion- 
ately loved  and  unforgotten  and  the  bad  experiences  of  the 
first  years  were  again  rendered  acute  by  the  conjugal  demands. 
The  dementia  preecox  patient  who  lost  her  love  on  the  stairs, 
looked  back  to  a youth  devastated  by  the  drinking  of  the  father, 
and  the  husband  of  the  friend  she  had  just  visited  was  likewise 
addicted  to  alcoholism.  The  revulsion  against  her  fiance  soon 
clothed  itself  in  fear  of  his  drunkenness  although  there  was 
not  the  slightest  occasion  in  the  life  of  the  man  for  this  accusa- 
tion. 

So  in  this  collision  with  reality,  we  are  dealing  at  bottom 
with  an  internal  conflict.  The  person  whose  eroticism  is  well 
provided  for,  can  endure  incredibly  hard  blows  of  fortune  and 
hardships,  whether  it  is  a question  of  the  satisfaction  of  the 
love-need  as  it  occurs  in  the  relation  to  fellowmen  or  of  the 
ideal  eroticism  in  science,  art,  nature  study,  religion  and  other 
sublimated  activities. 

2.  The  Inner  Life  as  a Factor  in  Repression 

If  we  review  our  first  consideration  (page  56,  col.  4) 
of  the  repressing  motives,  we  are  struck  by  the  numerical  pre- 
ponderance of  the  ethical  reactions.  Besides  these,  we  find, 
however,  other  considerations  also,  which  offset  the  profit  to  be 
gained  by  the  awakened  effort,  by  a very  appreciable  detri- 
ment, hence  exert  a powerful  retarding  influence.  We  recall 
that  neither  of  the  two  forces  engaged  in  contest  with  each 
other,  needs  to  be  conscious.  Often,  the  true  motive  is  hidden 
behind  a mask.  Many  times  a real  motive  is  known  but  only 
the  most  superficial  one,  for  example,  dislike  of  the  vocation, 
while  the  deeper  lying  conditions  (for  example,  erotic)  are 
not  even  suspected. 

(a)  the  ethical  motives 

He  who  has  a poor  opinion  of  the  power  of  conscience  will 
be  taught  a better  one  by  the  analytic  method  of  consideration. 
Many  maladies  are  nothing  else  than  flight  from  a severe 


96 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


ethical  conflict,  many  others  represent  expiations  for  past  short- 
comings or  counter-reactions  to  a burning  feeling  of  shame. 

1.  The  Warning  and  Impelling  Conscience 

A melancholy  girl  who  has  become  estranged  from  humanity 
and  God  suffers  from  difficulty  of  hearing.  Two  aurists,  by 
placing  the  tuning  fork  on  the  skull,  diagnosticate  beginning 
degeneration  of  the  auditory  nerve.  The  syphilis  of  the  father 
is  visited  on  the  daughter.  Nevertheless,  the  degree  of  the 
degenerative  process  cannot  explain  that  of  the  deafness  ac- 
cording to  the  view  of  the  otologist  consulted  by  me.  At  the 
advice  of  the  latter,  I undertook  an  analysis,  although  the  re- 
sult could  not  be  permanent  because  of  progressive  nerve  de- 
struction. Even  in  the  first  consultation,  the  defect  in  hearing 
yielded  almost  entirely.  While  at  the  beginning,  I had  to 
shout  loudly  in  order  to  be  heard,  at  the  end  of  the  conver- 
sation, the  patient  understood  fairly  low  speech,  and  heard  the 
ticking  of  her  light  running  watch. 

The  causes  of  the  hysterical  deafness  acting  as  reinforce- 
ment of  the  physiologically  conditioned  defect  of  hearing  were 
as  follows : 1.  The  father  suffering  from  atrophy  of  the  spinal 

cord  often  stormed  about  the  whole  night.  The  little  daugh- 
ter, fleeing  to  the  kitchen  and  weeping  on  the  kitchen  table, 
often  sighed:  “Would  that  I could  hear  nothing  of  the  dis- 
turbance!” 2.  The  idolized  mother  became  ill  of  cancer  of 
the  stomach.  The  daughter,  sleeping  in  the  same  room,  heard 
her  groan  and  repeated  the  previous  lament.  3.  The  good- 
for-nothing  brother  besieged  her  with  begging  letters.  She 
wished  to  hear  nothing.  4.  Evil-intentioned  persons  accused 
her  of  improper  relations  with  her  fiance  and  other  men  while 
she  knew  herself  innocent.  5.  Her  fiance,  whom  she  did  not 
love,  occasionally  spoke  in  harmless  manner  of  his  wish  to  have 
children.  Since  he  did  this  the  first  time,  she  has  not  only 
suffered  an  anxiety  attack  every  evening  upon  going  to  bed 
but  she  also  feels  herself  strengthened  in  her  wish:  “May  I 
hear  nothing  of  the  whole  thing.” 

The  result  lasted  only  two  days.  Why?  On  the  evening 


ETHICAL  CONFLICTS 


97 


of  the  second  day,  the  girl  met  a friend  of  her  youth  whom  she 
had  loved  years  before,  without  finding  her  love  reciprocated. 
Now,  he  met  her  with  great  friendliness,  sent  her  his  photo- 
graph and  acted  in  such  a manner  that  she  thought  she  per- 
ceived real  affection.  Immediately,  there  arose  a severe  ethical 
conflict:  “If  he  should  propose  marriage  to  me,  do  I belong 
to  him  whom  I love  or  to  the  fiance  whom  I do  not  love,  to 
whom  I gave  the  marriage  promise  and  who  will  be  unhappy 
without  me?”  Behind  this  conflict  wras  hidden,  as  I could 
state  definitely  from  analogy  with  more  thorough  analyses,  a 
whole  network  of  unconscious  motives  which  stretched  back 
even  to  earliest  childhood.  She  did  not  know  how  to  solve  the 
conflict  of  duties  by  clear  deliberation.  Therefore,  she  fled  to 
hysteria  which  plainly  realized  in  the  deafness  the  wish  to  hear 
nothing,  though  of  course,  only  in  symbolical  manner.  Thus, 
as  it  were,  she  avoided  the  collision,  or  rather,  the  duty  of  a 
well  considered  moral  decision,  for  he  who  cannot  hear,  also 
need  not  hear. 

It  was  easy  to  stop  the  new  attempt  at  flight.  The  cure 
lasted  a half  year.  Her  spirits  also  improved  splendidly,  the 
trust  in  God  arranged  itself  as  consolation  and  encouragement. 
The  anxiety  had  disappeared.  But  it  remained  for  the  girl  to 
see  that  it  was  not  right  to  continue  an  engagement  merely  to 
provide  a means  of  subsistence.  She  fell  out  with  her  future 
sister-in-law  and  as  a result,  estranged  herself  inwardly  still 
more  from  her  fiance.  Once  more,  she  withdrew  into  the  deaf- 
ness without,  however,  informing  me.  When  she  finally  did 
come,  she  brought  along  insurmountable  resistances  so  that  I 
at  once  recognized  that  she  was  not  in  earnest  in  her  will  to  be 
well.  For  she  finally  attained  what  she  wished  with  a part  of 
her  being : the  fiance,  who  had  been  very  badly  treated,  broke 
off  the  engagement  and  again  the  ethical  difficulties  were 
solved.*  The  warning  conscience  obtained  its  purpose  with 
the  help  of  the  unconscious. 

For  the  educator,  those  eases  are  especially  important,  in 

* Scarcely  had  the  previously  unloved  fiance  withdrawn  than  strong 
love  appeared  in  the  girl — which  was  naturally  without  vital  roots. 


98  THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 

which  the  anticipatory  conscience  attains  its  aims  by  utilization 
of  the  unconscious.  Meanwhile,  one  can  observe  how  an  in- 
tended wrong  is  frustrated  by  this  trick.  A boy  has  a rendez- 
vous, he  forgets  the  hour  in  mysterious  fashion,  changes  the 
place,  misunderstands  the  arrangements,  gets  a nose  bleed, 
leaves  his  pocket-book  behind  so  that  he  cannot  use  the  trolley 
and  comes  too  late,  etc. 

2.  The  Punishing  Conscience 

In  very  many  cases,  we  discover  in  the  depths  of  the  un- 
conscious, as  an  obstacle  to  the  activity  of  instinct,  the  memory 
of  past  wrong.  In  this,  we  are  not  to  think  of  thoughts  and 
acts  which  offend  against  public  morality  but  of  offenses 
against  the  inner  imperative,  against  the  command  of  the  in- 
dividual conscience.  The  young  girl  whose  migraine  in  the 
temples  went  back  to  the  death  threat  of  the  father  spared  her- 
self by  her  pain  the  accusation  of  hostile  wishes  against  her 
father.  The  hallucination  of  the  neighbor  changed  into  an 
angel,  probably  rested  on  a reproach  because  of  unallowed  senti- 
ments. A new  example  may  be  added : 

A girl  of  twenty-three  years  suffered  from  melancholia, 
anxiety,  neuralgias  in  the  face  and  stomach.  The  feeling  of 
guilt  ruled  the  waking  life  and  originally  the  uppermost 
stratum  of  her  dreams.  She  dreamed,  for  example,  of  a black 
marble  wall,  on  which  there  projected  a white  tablet  bearing 
the  crucifix.  In  this  vision,  she  found  consolation  for  her 
suffering  from  sins.  Homosexual  tendency  speaks  plainly 
from  many  dreams.  The  cautiously  phrased  question  con- 
cerning sexual  experiences  was  twice  definitely  denied  so  that 
I allowed  myself  to  be  deceived  by  the  prudery  and  moral  in- 
dignation. Not  yet  acquainted  with  the  technical  means  for 
analyses  of  resistance,  I did  not  know  how  to  help  myself  when 
communication  was  suddenly  shut  off  by  inner  compulsion.  I 
dismissed  her  with  religious  encouragement  and  the  advice  not 
to  give  so  much  love  to  the  woman  friend  but  to  support  herself 
with  love  to  God.  The  anxiety  had  already  disappeared. 
After  four  months,  the  patient  returned,  driven  by  change  for 


UNCONSCIOUS  MOTIVES 


99 


the  worse  in  her  condition  and  confessed  now,  of  her  own  free 
will,  although  in  a severe  struggle  against  the  speech  prohibi- 
tion, a number  of  sexual  transgressions  with  the  woman  friend 
and  a dog.  She  considered  the  pains  as  punishment.  Al- 
ways when  the  pain  in  the  right  cheek  was  analyzed,  there  was 
a thought  of  the  friend  and  repression  of  a sexual  longing  di- 
rected toward  her,  while  behind  the  hysterical  neuralgia  of  the 
left  half  of  the  face,  there  regularly  came  into  view  the  mother, 
who  has  been  dead  three  years.  In  dream  and  waking  life, 
there  floated  before  her,  hundreds  of  song-book  verses  and 
Bible  texts  to  which  she  clung  during  the  unbearably  severe 
pains.  In  this,  she  occasionally  omitted  parts  which  might 
aw’aken  unpleasant  sexual  memories,  for  example : 


“Glanz  der  Herrlichkeit, 
Du  vor  aller  Zeit, 

Leben  derer,  die  verloren, 
Und  ihr  Licht  dazu, 
Jesu,  siisae  Rub’.” 


Brightness  of  glory, 
Thou  of  eternity, 

Life  of  the  lost, 

And  their  light  as  well, 
Jesus,  sweet  rest. 


Here  two  stanzas  are  amalgamated.  The  first  runs  in  whole : 


‘Glanz  der  Herrlichkeit, 

Du  vor  aller  Zeit 

Zum  Erloser  uns  geschenket 

Und  in  unser  Fleisch  gesenket.’ 


Brightness  of  glory, 

Thou  of  eternity 
Sent  to  be  our  Savior 
And  degraded  to  our  flesh. 


This  place  whicn  arouses  sexual  thoughts  was  repressed  and 
in  its  place,  a part  of  the  previous  stanza  was  quoted,  which 
contains  already  the  religious  counter-reaction  against  the  sup- 
pressed sexual  stimulus.  In  general,  the  citations  dreamed,  or 
those  occurring  in  the  waking  life,  reflected  in  wonderful  nicety 
the  condition  of  the  unconscious. 

Twenty  days  after  the  session  described,  the  patient  awoke 
in  the  night  to  these  words : 


‘Zum  Erloser  uns  geschenket 
Und  in  unser  Herz  gesenket 
In  der  Full’  der  Zeit, 

Glanz  der  Herrlichkeit,” 


Sent  to  be  our  Savior 
And  in  our  heart  submerged 
In  the  fulness  of  time, 
Brightness  of  glory. 


100 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


In  this  connection,  there  came  into  her  mind  the  thought, 
this  place  belongs  to  song  No.  228,  verse  2 of  the  church  song- 
book.  Here,  however,  we  read  the  words: 


“Keiner  Gnade  sind  wir  wert 
Doeh  hat  er  in  seinem  Wort 
Klar  und  liebreich  sich  erkliirt, 
Sehet  nur,  die  Gnadenpforte 
1st  hief  vollig  aufgetan: 

Jesus  nimmt  die  Sunder  an.” 


Of  no  grace  are  we  worthy 
Still  in  his  word 
He  hath  clearly  and  kindly  shown. 
Only  look,  the  gate  of  mercy 
Is  here  wide  open: 

Jesus  takes  the  sins  upon  Him- 
self. 


I must  remark  in  advance  that  we  are  dealing  with  a demon- 
stration of  the  transference.  The  patient,  in  the  meantime, 
assimilated  the  homosexual  repression  in  great  part,  revealed 
the  most  painful  secrets  and  experienced  a decided  ameliora- 
tion of  her  suffering.  The  heterosexual  instinctive  tendency 
comes  forward,  the  desires,  which  in  reality  apply  to  the 
brother  and  originally  to  the  father,  are  projected  onto  the 
analyst.  The  speaking  of  the  parts  suppressed  in  the  previous 
dream  had  lifted  the  earlier  sexual  undertone  (“in  unser 
Fleisch  gesenket ’ ’ = “ to  our  flesh  degraded”)  into  con- 
sciousness. Now  the  dreamer  allows  the  idea  as  if  she  were 
purified  from  improper  phantasies.  In  relation  to  Jesus,  she 
is  also  innocent.  But  now,  the  pastor  lurks  behind  him. 
Hence,  a new  feeling  of  guilt  which  is  to  be  allayed  by  the 
reference  to  the  stanza  not  quoted.  This  interpretation  is  not 
certain. 

The  analysis  continued  with  many  and  long  interruptions 
for  one  and  one  quarter  years  and  ended  very  satisfactorily. 
Taken  abroad,  the  one  who  had  suffered  so  severely,  enjoyed 
complete  health  for  a long  time  although  her  external  life- 
relations  went  badly.  Two  months  after  her  departure,  she 
wrote:  “In  spite  of  external  affliction,  it  is  well  with  me  and 
my  trust  in  God  has  become  unshakable.”  Upon  awakenings 
she  heard  the  child’s  song:  “For  should  I not  be  joyous?” 
She  was  thus  not  really  cured.  Two  years  later,  after  all 
kinds  of  injuries  had  been  encountered  the  melancholia  re- 
turned. I had  to  refuse  the  analysis  and  send  the  patient  to 


MASTURBATION 


101 


the  physician  for  nervous  and  mental  diseases,  who  diagnosed, 
besides  hysteria,  dementia  prascox ; in  a longer  analytic  treat- 
ment in  a sanitarium,  he  improved  the  emotional  conditions  in 
some  measure  and  also  established  the  fact  that  there  was  little 
will  to  get  well.  The  patient  is  incurable. 

This  case,  like  many  others,  showed  me  that  the  conscious- 
ness of  sins  represents  in  no  way,  merely  an  atonement  for  past 
wrong  doing,  but  also  a satisfaction  of  the  instinct  which  finds 
no  gratification  in  reality.  The  still  active  instinct,  the  unper- 
mitted activity  of  which  called  forth  the  opposition  of  con- 
science, continues  as  best  it  may,  in  pathological  neurotic 
symptoms,  religious  ideas  of  strong  affect  value  or  other  per- 
formances which  may  be  ethically  very  valuable. 

It  is  important  to  recognize  that  the  consciousness  of  guilt 
is  also  in  every  case  a product  of  repression.  One  of  its  most 
frequent  sources,  where  it  appears  with  great  force  and  joined 
to  anxiety,  is  masturbation.  Bleuler  says:  “I  know  as  yet 
only  one  source  of  the  feeling  of  guilt,  which  one  might  call 
religious  or  transcendental:  onanism  or  some  similar  sexual 
transgressions.  Where  I could  analyze  such  a feeling  of  guilt, 
I came  upon  sexual  self-reproaches/’  * Jung  says  of  the  same 
phenomenon:  “Fundamentally,  it  is  probably  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a partial  sublimation  of  the  infantile  sexuality,  that 
is  to  say,  one  which  has  miscarried.  A certain  amount  of 
repressed  libido  (here,  this  word  is  equivalent  to  will  or  en- 
deavor) f represented  by  corresponding  phantasies,  is  left  un- 
attached and  according  to  familiar  examples,  is  converted  into 
anxiety.  ’ ’ i The  investigation  of  obsessional  neurotic  patients 
adds  the  information'  that  very  often,  murder  phantasies 
against  the  father  and  mother  also  call  forth  a pathological 
feeling  of  guilt,  still  we  know  that  their  disease  never  occurs 
without  previous  repressed  infantile  sexual  activity.  Whether 
these  phantasies  are  the  ultimate  causes,  as  Freud  assumes,  or 

* Bleuler,  Tiber  das  relig.  Schulbewusstseln.  Z.  f.  Religions-psycho- 
logie  Vol.  Ill  (1009),  p.  5. 

f Jung,  D.  Bedeutung  des  Vaters  f.  d.  Schicksa!  d.  Einzelnen. 
Jahrbuch  I,  p.  155. 

$ Jung,  Z.  f.  Relpsych.  Ill,  p.  7. 


102 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


only  the  superficial  occasion,  brought  about  by  a struggle 
against  an  inner  imperative  and  not  at  all  meant  in  earnest, 
as  Jung  believes,  we  must  later  seek  to  determine. 

It  is  interesting  how  the  sexually  conditioned  feeling  of 
guilt,  now  and  then,  creates  repressions,  which  also  lend  great 
weight  to  self-accusations  because  of  other  transgressions. 
The  boy  whom  we  met  as  dumb,  seeing  dimly  and  “hanging 
on  a thread,”  had  stolen  for  six  years  from  his  mother  without 
feeling  remorse.  Only  the  sexually  conditioned  feeling  of 
guilt  made  the  crime  against  property  burning ; thus  it  acted 
as  setting  free  other  moral  reactions.*  Another  time,  I ob- 
served that  a boy  of  sixteen,  who  had  masturbated  for  many 
years,  made  sexual  reproaches  against  himself  after  he  had 
committed  a theft. 

Ordinarily,  the  malady  breaks  out  first  when  the  onanism, 
previously  practiced  without  hesitation,  is  left  off  because  of 
threatening  warnings. 

A talented  boy  of  seventeen  years  entered  my  room  weeping, 
with  the  exclamation:  “For  God’s  sake,  help  me  if  there 
is  still  help !”  He  suffered  from  anxiety  that  his  breasts  had 
assumed  female  form,  for  which  reason,  he  could  no  longer 
practice  gymnastics  and  bathe  (with  others)  and  upon  the 
military  draft,  he  would  be  shamed  to  death.  Not  long  before, 
he  had  listened  to  the  lecture  of  a well-known  itinerant  preacher 
and  at  this,  heard  the  foolish  threat  of  gynacomasty.  As  a 
result  of  this,  he  stopped  his  bad  habit.  A short  time  later, 
the  phobia  appeared.  Reassurance  was  easy.  A year  later, 
pathological  sympathy  broke  out : The  youth  saw  a poor  girl 
fishing  drift-wood  from  the  sea.  A comrade  spoke  harshly  to 
her.  The  little  girl  looked  up  frightened  and  weeping,  threw 
away  the  wood  and  hastened  away  over  the  stones  with  bare 
feet.  This  picture  tormented  my  patient  for  many  nights  and 
kept  him  sleepless  until  morning.  In  explanation,  it  turned 
out  that  at  that  time,  he  had  written  a young  girl  a love  letter 
but  had  not  sent  it  because  he  considered  it  unfaithful  to 
another  girl.  Behind  the  child  whom  he  pitied,  there  thus 

* Prot,  Monatsh.  Vol.  XIII,  p.  11, 


PHOBIAS 


103 


lurked  the  jilted  friend,  behind  the  brutal  comrade,  he  him- 
self. 

A pupil  of  sixteen  years  suffered  from  pathological  fear  of 
cockroaches:  A comrade  had  warned  him  against  onanism 
and  predicted  severe  physical  injuries  to  him.  In  one  of  the 
next  nights,  an  accident  happened  to  the  fellow  in  whom  the 
remarks  of  the  friend  had  created  great  fear  and  imposed 
abstinence  from  onanism:  He  awoke  right  after  midnight 
from  having  smashed  a cockroach  on  his  chest.  Trembling, 
he  sprang  out  of  bed  and  could  not  go  back  again  until  morn- 
ing. From  that  time,  he  had  terrible  anxiety  for  beetles.  It 
happened  that  he  thought  he  suddenly  felt  such  an  animal  on 
his  chest  and  in  mortal  dread,  he  would  hasten  away  to  undress 
himself.  As  cause,  he  found  only  the  tape  of  his  undercloth- 
ing. From  that  time  on,  he  suffered  a severe  attack  of  anxiety 
upon  the  slightest  occasion  until  he  was  completely  healed  three 
years  later  by  an  analytic  session  with  me.  I explained  to  him 
the  basis  of  his  phobia  and  impressed  on  him  to  say  this  ex- 
planation over  when  another  attack  of  anxiety  occurred.  In 
the  afternoon  before  the  next  session,  he  read  in  bed  from  a 
guide-book.  Just  after  going  to  sleep,  so  he  asserted,  the  book 
fell  to  the  floor;  he  was  terribly  frightened  but  nevertheless 
immediately  followed  my  advice,  whereupon  to  his  astonish- 
ment, the  anxiety  at  once  disappeared.  Two  days  later,  he 
traveled  across  the  ocean,  where,  some  months  later,  new 
anxiety  with  hallucinations  broke  out.  I gave  him  repeated 
counsel  by  letter  and  soon  received  the  report  that  he  felt  quite 
well  again.  The  exact  conditions  of  the  cure  are  not  known 
to  me. 

Jung  has  recently  abandoned  his  belief  in  the  predominant 
sexual  root  of  the  religious  feeling  of  guilt.  Morbid  feeling 
of  sin,  he  finds  in  general,  where  a person  transgresses  an  in- 
alienable life-demand  peculiar  to  his  nature. 

The  sexual  damming  up  is  therewith  not  confirmed  as  cause 
of  the  feeling  of  guilt,  it  is  merely  put  alongside  other  motives. 
Also,  I believe  that  grievous  offenses  against  the  demands  of 
conscience  can  excite  anxiety  phenomena,  as  Shakespeare,  for 


104 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


example,  shows  in  his  Macbeth.  But  there,  too,  the  statement 
holds  that  corresponding  to  such  shocks  to  the  personality, 
there  are  constantly  disturbances  in  the  eroticism  or  a specific 
functioning  of  the  eroticism.  In  ambitious  misdoing,  the  ef- 
fort to  outdo  the  father  may  lie  hidden,  thus,  an  erotic  motive, 
or  in  accordance  with  Freud’s  terminology,  a sexual  motive. 
There  are  also,  however,  feelings  of  guilt,  which  are  to  be 
understood  simply  as  associative  results  of  the  infantile  fear  of 
punishment. 


3.  The  Public  Morality. 

Not  a few  people  allow  more  to  be  imposed  upon  themselves 
by  the  ridicule  or  contempt  of  others  than  by  the  inspirations 
of  their  own  conscience.  That  which  every  educator  has  so 
often  found  in  normal  individuals,  the  analytic  pedagogue 
finds  confirmed  in  countless  occurrences.  Many  a malady, 
many  a reaction  of  the  moral  consciousness  resting  on  repres- 
sion, goes  back  to  the  circumstance  that  a demand  of  instinct 
comes  in  conflict  with  a demand  of  culture  or  society.  Where- 
upon, the  individual  very  often  absorbs  the  imperative  of  his 
environment  into  the  expression  of  his  conscience.  Especially 
in  the  erotic  field,  is  the  power  of  public  opinion  plainly, 
enormously  strong.  Often,  however,  the  morality  of  the  en- 
vironment is  contrary  to  the  personal  moral  insight.  This 
conflict  cannot  yet  cause  a neurosis.  A neurosis  is  certainly 
many  times,  as  it  were,  the  spark  which  is  kindled  from  the 
friction  of  the  individual  and  social  morality  and  causes  a 
mighty  conflagration,  but  only  in  case  the  individual  recognizes 
the  social  morality  as  conforming  to  his  own  nature  and  sees 
his  own  inability  to  comply  with  it.  Thus,  the  conflict  must  be 
an  internal  one,  even  though  the  voice  of  conscience  is  con- 
ditioned by  the  environment.  To  this  extent,  the  social 
morality  is  also  of  importance.  The  existence  of  devastations 
resulting  from  such  internal  collisions  precipitated  from  the 
outside,  no  keen  observer  can  deny.  In  this  regard,  psycho- 
analysis must  open  the  eyes  of  humanity  and  offer  sword  and 
trowel  to  the  universally  approaching  longing  for  a higher 


ETHICS  AND  PSYCHOANALYSIS  105 

and  deeper,  freer  and  purer,  cultural  morality.  Not  that 
psychoanalysis  can  create  the  new  values  and  landmarks ! But 
it  can  and  will  provide  a mass  of  facts  in  the  case  which  will 
put  the  emotional  and  intellectual  forces  in  mighty  agitation. 
And  further,  social  ethics  cannot  do  without  resuect  for  the 
forces  of  reality.  Only  a few  sketches  may  be  outlined  here : 
The  neurosis,  frightful  as  it  can  be,  is  not  the  greatest  evil. 
If  the  highest  ethical  values  were  to  be  purchased  only  at 
this  price,  then  the  neurosis  would  have  to  be  endured.  As 
a matter  of  fact,  however,  corresponding  to  the  devastation 
of  the  healthy  life,  there  is  very  often  a reduction  of  the  moral 
value  and  corresponding  to  the  pseudomoralistic  commands,  a 
loss  in  mental  and  physical  health.  Against  this  state  of  af- 
fairs, the  analytically  trained  educator  and  people’s  adviser 
must  and  will  take  the  field.  In  no  way  is  this  a question  of 
licentious  self-indulgence.  The  analysis  will  show  us  more 
and  more  that  the  deeper  claims  of  the  spirit  are  of  greater 
importance  than  the  peripheral  discharge  of  erotic  tensions. 
Many  a libertine,  whom  the  repressions  of  his  love-demands 
drives  with  patholo'gical  compulsion  into  foolish  efforts,  can  be 
guided  by  the  analysis  to  a socially  useful  life.  Further,  where 
sexual  denial  causes  great  disturbance,  the  analysis  helps  to 
find  the  true  ground  of  the  trouble  in  soluble  internal  conflicts 
and  in  persons,  ethically  normal,  to  bring  about  that  healthful 
direction  of  instinct  to  higher  ends  which  we  will  discuss  under 
the  title  of  sublimation. 

(b)  the  repressing  motives  with  exclusion  op  the 

QUESTION  OP  THEIR  ETHICAL  DIGNITY 

Very  often,  the  neurosis  bears  witness  to  a moral  refinement 
which  struggles  against  the  actual  relations  but  cannot  openly 
attain  its  purpose  and  therefore  seeks  its  goal,  wholly  or  in 
part  at  least,  symbolically  or  indirectly,  through  some  secret 
channel.  Often,  however,  the  repression  simply  goes  toward 
sparing  of  pain  and  thus  serves  the  pure  pleasure-hunger. 
The  repressed  desire  is  then  often  of  high  moral  tone,  while  the 


106 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


repressing  desire  corresponds  to  egoism  or  convenience,  which 
takes  refuge  in  the  neurosis  instead  of  energetically  continuing 
the  moral  combat  in  the  reality.  Many  an  hysterical  malady 
is  a renunciation  of  moral  deeds,  a capitulation  of  the  ethical 
consciousness  in  the  face  of  the  immoral  forces  of  effortless 
pleasure-seeking,  a cheap  solution  of  serious  ethical  problems 
according  to  the  principle  of  the  least  expenditure  of  effort. 

Many  hysterical  individuals  and  other  victims  of  a refrac- 
tory unconscious  spare  themselves  the  great  sacrifice  of  re- 
nunciation of  certain  conveniences  and  pleasures  of  life,  those 
harsh  denials  and  efforts  which  would  be  necessary  to  gain  a 
free  self-control,  a healthy  life  conduct. 

A sufferer  from  anxiety  neurosis  was  thrown  into  the  water 
by  an  enemy  and  during  the  period  of  his  ill  health,  drew  a 
high  indemnity  which  would  be  discontinued  with  the  return 
of  health  or  the  ability  to  earn  his  living.  He  must  therefore 
perform  a great  moral  feat  in  order  to  escape  the  mastery  of 
the  repressed  material.  His  satisfaction  with  indolence,  free 
from  work,  interposed  a powerful  resistance  to  the  analysis 
and  maintained  the  repression  as  it  existed  when  the  malady 
began.  Obviously,  there  lurk  behind  such  repressions,  still 
other,  more  powerful  ones.  In  what  direction,  these  are  to  be 
sought,  will  become  evident  later. 

Experience  teaches  that  the  repression  becomes  only  so  much 
the  stronger  when  one  would  save  himself  a necessary  decision, 
industriously  drive  out  of  mind  a painful  conflict  or  transform 
it  into  vain  phantasies  of  which  we  will  speak  in  another  place. 
“He  who  observes  himself  attentively  and  without  prejudice, 
knows  that  there  dwells  within  him  a being  which  would  gladly 
conceal  and  gloss  over  everything  difficult  and  questionable  in 
life,  in  order  to  create  for  itself  a'  free  and  easy  path.  ’ ’ * 
That  which  we  would  gladly  diminish  in  conscious  thought  and 
volition,  we  must  carry  out  in  the  unconscious  with  just  so 
much  the  greater  pains.  It  is  the  old  story  of  the  boy  who  will 
not  pick  up  the  horse-shoe  but  stoops  for  every  cherry,  but 
with  this  difference,  that  both  the  neurotic  and  the  normal 

#Jung,  Der  Inhalt  der  Psychose.  Leipzig  & Vienna  1908,  p.  25. 


FREUD  AND  JUNG 


107 


individual  must  stoop  and  does  not  see  the  connection  between 
cherry  and  money  because  of  the  repression. 

No  strong  emotion  is  conceivable  which  may  not  be  repressed. 
Ambition,  desire  for  money,  lust  and  cruelty  are  absent  as  little 
as  magnanimity,  generosity  and  selfsacrifice  in  the  catalogue 
of  repressing  factors.  Vicious  tendencies  are  active  in  the 
unconscious  as  well  as  the  virtuous  ones.  Those  impulses 
which  have  absorbed  emotional  energies  from  other  sources, 
especially  the  erotic  (see  Chapter  VII),  exert  most  repressing 
force.  The  conflict  between  moral  and  immoral  tendencies 
causes  the  greatest  distraction.  The  moral  man,  like  the  im- 
moral man,  is  strong,  while  the  strongest  intelligence  and  will- 
power with  a feeling  of  guilt  or  mistrust  of  self  may  easily 
fall  to  a state  of  weakness. 

Ethical  and  non-ethieal  motives  for  repression  act  in  the 
sense  of  striving  toward  avoidance  of  discomfort. 

Recently,  Jung  lays  great  stress  on  the  point  that  the  con- 
flict leading  to  illness  lies  in  the  present  (Jahrbuch  V,  382) 
and  proceeds  chiefly  from  the  circumstance  that  the  person 
shrinks  from  a necessary  task.  “When  the  libido  (the  will) 
shrinks  from,  a necessary  task,  this  happens  from  those  general 
human  reasons  of  convenience,  which  are  developed  to  very 
high  degree  not  only  in  the  child  but  also  in  primitive  man 
and  in  animals.  The  primitive  indolence  and  convenience  is 
the  first  opposing  influence  against  efforts  at  adaptation” 
(Jahrbuch  V,  422).  Even  earlier,  Freud  had  emphasized  that 
the  illness  occurs  when  there  is  denied  to  the  individual,  as 
result  of  external  obstacles  or  internal  deficiency  in  adapta- 
tion, the  gratification  of  his  erotic  needs.  (Uber  Psycho- 
analyse, page  54).  Therein,  Freud  has  also  properly  esti- 
mated the  present  (=  actual)  conflict,  at  the  same  time, 
however,  avoiding  a one-sidedness  of  which  Jung  is  guilty.  It 
will  not  do  to  explain  all  neuroses  on  a basis  of  convenience, 
and  only  arbitrarily  can  one  make  deficiency  in  capacity  for 
adaptation  answerable  for  them.  We  have  already  mentioned 
under  appeal  to  Freud  a number  of  maladies  which  arose  from 
the  circumstance  that  a person  gave  up  his  primitive  or  im- 


108 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


moral  conduct  and  went  over  to  higher  morality  (94).  Fur- 
ther, we  know  highly  energetic  people  who  suddenly  give  up 
in  an  effort  and  break  down ; the  task  would  be  easy  if  inhibi- 
tions had  not  been  already  present.  If  it  is  a matter  of  a 
shocking  event,  however,  a deprivation  or  abstinence,  the  per- 
ception of  grievous  guilt  or  similar  experiences,  one  cannot 
charge  the  illness  entirely  to  the  account  of  convenience,  where 
simply  the  strength  for  normal  reception  and  reaction  to  the 
impression  is  lacking.  When  a bullet  perforates  a person, 
shall  we  say:  The  body  possessed  too  little  capacity  for 
adaptation  to  the  bullet?  The  formulations  of  Freild,  which 
anticipate  the  correct  part  of  Jung’s  thoughts,  deserve  there- 
fore the  preference.  Only,  one  must  also  include  among  the 
erotic  needs,  the  denial  of  which  makes  the  individual  ill,  the 
moral  demands,  which  Freud  does. 

Finally,  it  may  be  pointed  out  here,  that  healthy  and  sick 
are  exposed  to  exactly  the  same  motives  for  repression.  “We 
discover  in  the  insane,  not  something  new  and  unknown,  but 
the  substratum  of  our  own  being,  the  mother  of  the  problems 
of  life,  on  which  we  are  all  engaged.”  * 


3.  The  Relation  op  the  External  and  Internal 
Factors  in  Repression 

The  repression  never  proceeds  from  purely  external  or  in- 
ternal conditions  but  always  from  a disagreement  of  inner 
strivings,  whether  these  have  been  excited  by  external  or  in- 
ternal causes.  In  this  disagreement,  the  internal  forces  must 
be  recognized  as  the  incomparably  stronger  ones.  In  mental 
equilibrium,  in  suitable  utilization  of  the  instincts  and  erotic 
demands,  it  should  be  noticed  again  that  no  external  calamity, 
no  stress  of  life  conditions,  can  bring  about  a serious  repression. 
Conversely,  comparatively  minor  misfortune  may  result  in  the 
greatest  disturbances  when  the  mind  is  torn  by  grievous  con- 
flict. Thus,  the  external  calamity  is  a provocative  agent,  the 


Same,  p.  26. 


ANXIETY  NEUROSIS 


109 


light  pressure  on  the  electric  button  which  shatters  a mighty 
mass  of  rock. 

A fourteen  year  old  pupil  jumps  from  the  second  story 
because  he  had  a conflict  with  the  teacher  and  received  a bad 
report.  The  public  gave  itself  up  to  spiteful  condemnation  of 
the  teacher  who  “drove  the  poor  victim  to  death.”  In  reality, 
the  youth  has  suffered  unspeakably  for  years  from  severe  re- 
pressions caused  by  the  brutality  of  his  father;  the  teacher 
merely  did  his  duty.* 

A teacher  became  ill  with  a severe  anxiety  neurosis  because 
he  could  find  no  suitable  dwelling  and  was  disturbed  by  the 
noise  in  front  of  his  house.  He  made  written  plans  for  de- 
parting from  life.  His  wife  discovered  the  writing  and  became 
so  excited  that  she  had\  to  be  confined  in  an  insane  asylum. 
Consideration  for  the  children  determined  the  father  to  save 
himself.  He  begged  me  to  intercede  spiritually  for  him.  As 
an  enthusiastic  follower  of  Dubois,  at  the  time,  I sought  by 
consoling  and  explaining  to  awaken  new  courage  for  life,  and 
after  some  weeks,  experienced  a satisfactory  result  which 
strengthened  my  faith  in  the  excellence  of  the  method. 
Puzzled  by  later  bad  results,  I investigated  whether  other 
influences  had  coincided  with  my  ministrations,  and  sure 
enough,  found  that  at  that  time  an  experienced  physician  had 
advised  giving  up  coitus  interruptus  in  favor  of  coitus  eon- 
domatus  and  thereby  established  satisfactory  sexual  inter- 
course. I am  convinced  that  the  decisive  factors  in  the  cure 
belonged  both  to  the  physician  and  the  pastor.  After  the 
treatment,  the  teacher  found  his  dwelling  very  nice  and  de- 
clined to  remove  to  a home  offered  him  which  he  had  long 
desired. 

I defend  the  primacy  of  the  inner  life,  not  only  because  in 
ungoverned  instinctive  relations,  an  adaptation  to  the  world 
is  difficult  of  attainment,  hut  also  because  the  unsaved  person 
unconsciously  so  fashions  reality  as  to  correspond  to  his  mental 
complications  and  thereby  often  unfortunately  brings  about 

* Compare  the  interesting  1st  Diskussion  der  Wiener  psychoan. 
Vereinigung  iiber  den  Selbtsmord.  Bergmann,  Wiesbaden,  1910. 


110 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


the  necessity  which  renders  the  situations  more  severe.  By 
disclosing  this  state  of  affairs,  psychoanalysis  has  given  us  the 
key  to  the  comprehension  of  countless  acts  otherwise  incom- 
prehensible. 

From  this  standpoint,  the  psychology  of  unlucky  persons 
becomes  clearer  to  us.  It  can  lead  us  to  all  kinds  of  uncon- 
scious motives  and  wishes  which  misfortune  serves.  When  a 
boy  is  stricken  with  severe  headache,  always  just  at  the  time 
when  he  has  to  eat  some  distasteful  food  or  work  on  a hated 
essay  subject,  that  is  certainly  not  intentional  but  still  willed, 
even  though  willed  unconsciously.*  Thus,  misfortune  and 
secret  tendencies  often  coincide. 

A nervous  boy  of  fifteen  years  had  some  misfortune  every 
few  days.  Now  he  would  fall  from  the  planks,  the  wide  open- 
ing between  which,  he  wished  to  jump  over,  and  be  found 
lying  with  a broken  leg,  now  he  would  receive  a severe  bodily 
injury  while  sliding  down  hill.  He  always  kept  his  family  in 
excitement.  The  analysis  revealed  loss  of  interest  in  life : the 
boy  constantly  carried  a loaded  revolver  on  his  person  and 
wanted  to  kill  himself  but  was  prevented  by  religious  scruples. 
His  misfortunes  are  disguised  attempts  at  suicide  and  demands 
for  affection. 

Another  youth  of  sixteen  years,  who  for  years  seems  to  have 
striven  for  the  record  as  an  unlucky  fellow,  now  falling  from  a 
wagon  upon  his  head,  now  being  struck  by  a mattock,  etc., 
suffers  from  a painful  hysterical  point  of  pressure  on  the  skull 
wall.  The  analysis  revealed  the  phantasy,  held  for  years,  that 
he  would  crush  his  skull  in  at  that  point  by  a blow  from  a 
hammer.  Since  the  analysis  of  these  symptoms,  neither  boy 
has  suffered  from  similar  trouble. 

Even  with  individuals  who  are  in  full  health,  the  external 
misfortune  often  corresponds  to  an  unconscious  purpose. 
Much  oftener  than  one  would  surmise,  the  person  is  situated 
as  he  has  unconsciously  prayed  to  be. 

An  otherwise  exemplary  young  man  disagrees  with  all  his 
superiors  and  other  important  personalities,  thereby  endanger- 

* Compare  the  examples  on  page  9S. 


REPRESSING  AND  REPRESSED 


111 


ing  his  career  which  he  had  begun  brilliantly.  The  analysis 
of  his  waking  phantasies  solved  the  riddle : Frequently,  he 
runs  up  and  down  his  room  with  clenched  fists,  contends  with 
threatening  voice  against  an  imaginary  enemy,  as  a rule,  his 
superiors.  From  his  dreams,  however,  it  is  seen  with  certainty 
that  it  is  really  his  father  who  is  meant,  since  the  latter  and  the 
superior  frequently  appear  as  a composite  figure.  Thus,  the 
pugnacious  man  wishes  to  vent  on  other  objects  the  pleasure 
of  his  successful  strife  against  his  father,  he  wishes  to  realize 
now  the  hot,  reckless,  childish  wishes,  by  which  useless  conduct 
he  spoils  his  finest  chances.  The  analysis  saved  him  also. 

The  unconscious  possesses  a really  refined  virtuosity  for  mold- 
ing people  according  to  its  tendencies.  The  husband,  who  has 
remained  attached  to  his  mother  and  lived  in  strife  with  her, 
knows  how  to  bring  a differently  tempered  wife  unknowingly 
to  the  point  where  she  will  treat  him  as  his  mother  did.  So 
long  as  this  fixation,  which  will  be  discussed  later,  remains  in 
force,  all  good  intentions  are  in  vain. 

4.  The  Relation  Between  Repressing  and  Repressed 

Factors 

Where  two  interests  hostile  to  each  other  exist,  a reciprocal 
action  takes  place,  in  which  every  active  force  will  act  as  a 
repressing  one.  Often,  one  will  be  victorious  for  a long  time, 
then  the  other.  The  oscillation  can  last  for  a whole  lifetime. 

A girl  of  twenty-twTo  years  now  loved  her  fiance  passion- 
ately, now  to  her  sorrow,  found  her  affection  gone.  Especially 
striking  to  her  was  the  circumstance  that  she  loved  him  in  his 
absence;  as  soon  as  she  sees  him  alight  from  the  ear,  she  be- 
comes cold,  to  become  aglow  again  as  soon  as  he  has  taken  his 
train.  From  her  dreams,  it  is  evident  that  she  thinks  to  find 
her  father  again  in  her  lover  and  unconsciously  confuses  the 
two  men.  The  father  was  the  object  of  her  longing  so  long  as 
he  stayed  at  a distance  but  repelled  her  by  his  cold  behavior 
when  he  had  returned.  She  hated  and  loved  him  simultan- 
eously. Now  love,  now  hate  gained  the  upper  hand,  but  the 
latter  did  not  present  itself  openly  in  consciousness.  The  in- 


112 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


ternal  dissension  was  reflected  in  obsessional  anxiety  ideas. 
One  day,  she  was  stricken  with  anxiety  which  lasted  two  weeks 
until  the  analysis,  that  she  would  have  a hemorrhage.  Shortly 
before,  she  had  visited  a “beautiful,”  intelligent,  lovable 
friend  who  was  ill  of  pulmonary  disease,  who,  because  of  the 
advanced  stage  of  her  disease,  had  broken  her  engagement. 
My  patient  suffered  from  the  circumstance  that  her  mother, 
when  she  was  a child  of  six  or  seven  years,  had  spoken  of  her 
in  the  presence  of  some  ladies,  as  being  of  small  intelligence, 
while  she  is  justly  proud  of  her  mental  endowment.  She 
would  like  to  be  pretty  and  is  so  in  fact,  but  she  does  not  believe 
it  because  at  home  she  was  always  depreciated.  In  all  direc- 
tions, she  wishes  to  identify  herself  with  the  friend  whom  she 
recognizes  as  beautiful,  particularly  in  the  erotic  situation  as 
well.  The  obsession  disappeared  soon  after  her  enlightenment. 
The  anxiety  over  a hemorrhage  showed  that  strong  erotic 
longing  was  pent  up.  The  changing  of  emotions  ceased  after 
the  overcoming  of  other,  easily  elucidated  (compensatory) 
obsessions  (obsessional  ideas),  phobias  (anxiety  conditions)  * 
and  hallucinations,  when  the  girl  had  become  clearly  conscious 
of  her  attitude  toward  her  father  and  his  substitute,  the  fiance. 
The  young  bride-to-be  perceived  how  much  she  had  to  gain, 
how  much  to  lose,  and  ended  the  see-saw  of  repression  forces 
by  real  and  lasting  love  suitable  to  the  hardship  and  happiness 
of  married  life. 

Often,  one  sees  how  the  repressed  material  takes  possession 
of  consciousness  until  the  relation  changes  again.  In  this, 
repressing  and  repressed  exchange  roles  each  time. 

Both  go  back  ultimately  to  elementary  instincts.  Still,  in 
general,  this  connection  with  the  demands  of  nature  is  more 
direct  in  the  repressed,  and  further,  it  may  be  more  easily 
demonstrated  here. 

* The  psychoanalyst  distinguishes  between  fear  and  anxiety.  With 
the  former,  the  reason  and  object  are  known,  and  there  is  a normal 
relation  between  occasion  and  reaction,  with  anxiety,  on  the  other 
hand,  either  no  reason  at  all  or  an  insufficient  one  is  given. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  INFANTILE  ROOTS  OF  THE  REPRESSION 
IN  DETAIL 

1.  Historical 

“The  unconscious  is  the  infantile  and  that  particular  part 
of  a person  which  has  been  separated  from  the  personality  at 
that  time  and  hence  has  been  repressed.  ” * In  this  formula, 
Freud  once  expressed  his  provisional  judgment  concerning  the 
origin  and  nature  of  the  subconscious  which  is  important  for 
us  in  this  connection.  Never  has  a psychologist*  ascribed  to  the 
first  years  of  childhood,  not  merely  to  the  hereditary  endow- 
ment, so  great  an  importance  for  the  whole  future  conduct  in 
life,  as  the  father  of  psychoanalysis.  Not  only  the  dreams  and 
ordinary  performances  of  every-day  life  but  also  the  highest 
achievements  of  art  and  poetry — we  might  add  in  his  sense: 
also  of  morality  and  religion  are  dependent  in  high  degree 
upon  the  impressions  of  childhood  and  outlined  in  these. 
Everywhere,  he  seeks  to  show  infantile  sources ; even  the  thou- 
sandfold needs  of  the  neuroses  and  psychoses,  as  well  as  the 
formation  of  character,  take  their  origin  in  earliest  child  life 
and  here  receive  their  guiding  impulses.  As  the  tree  has  to 
suffer  for  a lifetime,  for  injuries  done  to  it  when  just  pushing 
its  shoot  above  the  ground,  so  also  the  human  mind.  And 
more:  All  neurotic  troubles,  so  far  as  they  proceed  from 
mental  causes,  have  an  infantile  previous  history,  without 
which  they  could  not  have  come  into  existence. 

From  the  medical  side,  a great  objection  was  raised  to  this 
estimation  of  childhood  and  childhood  impressions.  They 
overwhelmed  their  Viennese  colleague  with  angry  accusation, 

* Freud,  Bemerkungen  iiber  einen  Fall  von  Zwangsneurose.  Jahrb.  I, 
373. 


113 


114 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


caricaturing  irony,  malicious  jest,  and  did  so  much  in  that  kind 
of  polemics  that  they  thought  argument  and  actual  observa- 
tions could  be  dispensed  with  as  entirely  superfluous.  Other 
physicians  took  a calm  and  expectant  attitude  toward  Freud’s 
announcements. 

To  the  pedagogue,  Freud’s  accentuation  of  the  first  years  of 
life  may  seem  less  startling.  At  least,  he  will  lend  an  attentive 
ear  with  the  greatest  earnestness  to  the  investigator,  who,  on 
a basis  of  substantial  works  in  his  own  field,  discovers  valuable 
springs  which  take  their  origin  in  the  domain  of  education.  If 
psychoanalysis  is  correct,  then  there  beckon  to  the  pedagogue, 
perspectives  such  as  scarcely  one  of  its  official  representatives 
would  dare  to  dream  of.  The  art  of  education  appears  as 
savior  in  the  constantly  swelling  flood  of  nervous  maladies,  it 
gains  a large  influence  in  politics,  morals  and  religion,  it  even 
plays  an  important  role  in  the  genesis  of  artistic  genius. 
Guarding  and  directing,  as  giver  of  the  law  and  of  the  saving 
gospel,  pedagogic  activity  rules  over  humanity,  invested  with 
a power  little  dreamed  of,  if  the  psychoanalysis  of  Freud  is 
correct. 

These  promises,  to  the  pronunciation  of  which,  Freud,  in 
his  modest,  matter-of-fact  manner,  would  never  allow  himself 
to  be  transported,  sound  so  exuberant  that  we  critical  peda- 
gogues need  to  be  admonished  to  prudent  foresight.  But  if 
the  beautiful  things  which  are  inferred  as  consequences  of  the 
analytic  investigation  were  facts,  what  educator  who  is  still 
ready  to  learn  something,  would  deny  a priori  the  great  new 
resultant  possibilities?  Of  course,  he  who  dislikes  something 
new  and  great  because  it  explains  a bit  of  the  things  previously 
done  as  incomplete  and  erroneous,  will  also  be  compelled  to 
declare  war  on  Freud  as  an  abominable  disturber  of  the  peace. 

(a)  the  importance  op  infantile  impressions  in  general 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  psychoanalytic  investigation 
came  upon  the  importance  of  the  events  of  childhood  entirely 
by  following  its  own  paths.  Every  dream,  which  one  had 


IMPRESSIONS  OF  CHILDHOOD 


115 


occasion  to  analyze  to  its  profoundest  depths,  every  neurotic 
symptom  which  was  followed  back  to  its  hidden  source,  dis- 
closed a bit  of  the  childlife  of  the  first  four  years.*  Freud 
came  to  the  conjecture  “that  the  impressions  of  earliest  child- 
hood (the  prehistoric  period,  about  to  the  end  of  the  fourth 
year)  in  and  for  themselves,  perhaps  without  depending  upon 
their  content,  longed  for  reproduction,  and  that  the  repetition 
is  a wishfulfillment.  ’ ’ t 

Only  afterwards  was  attention  called  in  analytical  circles 
to  the  fact  that  sharp-sighted  students  of  human  nature  had 
already  given  expression  to  these  facts,  of  course,  more  with  the 
help  of  an  instinctive  clairvoyance  than  on  a basis  of  scientific 
investigation.  I will  give  the  words  of  one  of  the  greatest 
students  of  the  mind  among  the  poets,  Friedrich  Hebbel: 
“When  one  sees  himself  compelled  to  speak  concerning  things 
which  will  be  quite  unintelligible  to  any  one  without  inner  ex- 
perience, one  cannot  guard  enough  against  misinterpretations. 
. . . Even  men  of  insight  themselves  do  not  cease  to  quarrel 
with  the  poet  over  the  choice  of  his  material  and  thereby  show 
that  they  always  consider  the  work,  the  first  stage  of  which, 
the  conception,  lies  deep  under  consciousness  and  sometimes 
goes  back  to  the  dimmest  distances  of  childhood,  as  a mere 
product  of  work,  even  though  of  noble  kind,  and  that  they 
attribute  in  the  mental  birth  an  arbitrariness  which  they  would 
certainly  not  assign  to  the  physical  birth,  attachment  of  which 
to  nature  is  of  course  plainly  visible.  One  may  scold  the  small 
artisan  when  he  brings  something  which  does  not  please  the 
lord  and  master ; the  poet,  on  the  other  hand,  one  must  excuse, 
when  all  goes  not  well,  he  had  no  choice,  not  once  does  he  have 
the  choice  whether  he  will  produce  a work  or  not,  for  once  this 
has  become  alive,  it  may  not  be  redigested,  it  may  not  be  again 
changed  into  blood,  but  must  appear  in  free  independence  and 
a suppressed  or  blocked  mental  delivery  can  cause  destruction 
just  as  well  as  an  abnormal  physical  delivery,  whether  in  death 

* Zur  ^Etiologie  der  Hysterie.  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  171. 

t Traumdeutung,  3rd  ed.  p.  177. 


116 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


or  in  insanity.  One  recalls  Goethe’s  youthful  companion, 
Lenz,  also  Holderlin  and  Grabbe.  ’ ’ * 

I could  not  refrain  from  repeating  in  detail  these  words  of 
farseeing  wisdom  which  anticipate  some  of  the  chief  thoughts 
of  psychoanalysis.  That  in  Hebbel’s  own  creations,  the  traces 
of  childhood  may  be  discerned,  has  been  shown  already  by  Kuh  t 
in  his  excellent  biography. 

That  other  mortals,  too,  remain  under  the  sway  of  the  influ- 
ences of  childhood  for  their  whole  lifetimes,  the  psychoanalysts 
have  not  discovered  first.  Hammer  rightly  says : 

“Touch  not  the  dream  of  the  children 
When  a pleasure  caresses  them: 

Their  grief  hurts  them  not  less 
Than  thine  hurts  thee! 

Many  an  old  man 

Whose  heart  no  longer  glows, 

Bears  in  his  face  a wrinkle 
Which  out  of  his  childhood  came.”  J 

Especially  in  the  hours  of  stress,  does  the  childhood  re- 
awaken, the  mind  harks  back  to  its  first  Garden  of  Eden  and 
calls  longingly  for  the  consoling  figures  of  that  age,  inspires 
them  with  new  life,  becomes  again  just  a child  to  be  coddled 
and  led  about,  in  order  to  reappear  with  new  energy  in  the 
stern  reality.  K.  F.  Meyer  expresses  this  in  his  song  “Hep- 
eros ’ ’ : 


“Over  the  dark  and  fur-clad  hills 
Shone  on  me  in  my  evening  walk 
A love  I feel  go  down 
In  thy  setting, — 

Unnoticed  bast  thou  come 
From  the  pale  air  begun  to  glow. 

Thus  with  unheard  steps 

* Hebbel,  Vorwort  zur  “Maria  Magdalena”  (1844).  Samtl.  Werke, 
herausg.  v.  Bartels,  Stuttgart  und  Leipzig,  p.  822.  O.  Rank,  Das 
Inzest-Motiv,  p.  125. 

f E.  Kuh.  Biographie  Friedrich  Hebbels,  Vienna  and  Leipzig,  1907, 
Vol.  II,  p.  74  ff.  (Maria  Magdalena), 
t Cited  by  Stekel,  Zbl.  Ill,  p.  52. 


FIXATION  OF  INSTINCT 


117 


Through  the  dusk  agliding 
Came  the  mother,  who  laid 
On  my  shoulder,  her  firm  hand 
So  that  I could  not  conceal  from  her 
What  I suffer,  what  torments  me. 

And  why  without  complaint 
I am  gnawed  and  consumed. 

And  I am  silent,  and  in  tears 
Let  her  comfort  me. 

Has  she  a dwelling,  now,  the  gracious  one, 

There  in  thy  fields  of  light? 

Of  thy  rays,  I drink  up  each 
Through  the  darkness  I hear  speaking, 

— And  it  seems  to  me  as  if 
I feel  the  cool  hand  on  my  shoulder, — 

Speak,  not  of  sweet  beatitudes. 

Only  of  the  memories  of  old  times! 

Now  she  understands  without  more  telling 
Who  I am  in  heart’s  reality. 

This  and  that  must  she  scold 
Other  things  leaves  she  contented 
And  she  means,  so  I conclude, 

Be  satisfied  yourself. 

Evening  star,  hasten  quickly 
Let  her  visit  with  her  child! 

Twinkling  friendly,  you  go  down  . . . 

Mother,  Mother,  come  again!” 

Even  if  we  were  not  acquainted  with  Sadger ’s  valuable,  tact- 
ful and  scientific  monograph,*  we  would  detect  in  these  verses, 
the  grief  of  the  unhappy  poet,  whom  the  fixation  upon  the 
mother  long  held  under  the  yoke  of  unproductive  dreamer, 
whom  the  recognition  withheld  by  the  mother  once  thrust  into 
mental  darkness.  Similar  examples  from  the  mouths  of  poets 
might  be  multiplied  indefinitely.  Why,  precisely  in  inhibi- 
tions, the  flight  into  the  infantile  becomes  so  striking,  we  shall 
see  later. 

In  order  to  define  the  share  of  the  infantile  more  exactly, 
we  turn  now  to  the  psychoanalytic  investigation.  After  Freud 

* Sadger,  Konrad  Ferdinand  Meyer,  eine  pathographisch-biographische 
Studie.  Wiesbaden  1908.  Adolf  Frey  mentions  infantile  impressions 
in  the  works  of  the  poet,  C.  F.  Meyer.  Stuttgart,  1900,  p.  36. 


118 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


had  shown  the  processes  of  the  childlife  to  be  the  earliest  de- 
terminants of  disease,  he  found  early  infantile  remnants  in 
the  dreams.  He  succeeded,  indeed,  in  discovering  in  dreams, 
entirely  forgotten  impressions  from  the  earliest  years  of  life 
and  in  determining  the  correctness  of  these  by  external  sub- 
stantiation.* He  found,  to  his  astonishment,  “in  the  dream, 
the  child  with  its  impulses  coming  to  life.  ’ ’ t For  him,  the 
dream  is  “the  substitute  for  the  infantile  scenes  changed  by 
transference  to  recent  material.  ’ ’ J What  he  says  concern- 
ing the  significance  of  sexuality  as  the  nourishing  soil  of  the 
higher  mental  activity  (besides  the  ego  instincts)  must  also 
be  considered  here,  for  he  traces  back  the  achievements  named, 
to  the  early  infantile  sexuality.  He  finds  the  poetic  endeavor 
outlined  in  childish  play  and  phantasy  play.||  It  reflects  the 
deepest  wish  of  the  poet.  “A  phantasy  floats  as  it  were,  among 
three  periods  of  time,  the  three  temporal  possibilities  of  our 
imagination.  The  mental  work  joins  an  actual  impression,  an 
occasion  in  the  present  which  was  in  a position  to  awaken  one 
of  the  greatest  wishes  of  the  person,  from  there,  it  falls  back 
upon  the  memory  of  an  earlier,  usually  infantile  experienoe, 
in  which,  that  wish  was  fulfilled  and  creates  now  a situation 
related  to  the  future,  which  situation  is  represented  as  the  ful- 
fillment of  that  wish,  thus  the  daydream  or  phantasy.”  If  In 
the  same  manner,  the  poem  comes  into  existence, § poem  and 
daydream  are  continuation  and  substitute  for  the  onetime 
juvenile  play.  Myths  are  distorted  wish-phantasies  of  whole 
nations,  the  secular  dreams  of  young  humanity.** 

In  the  life  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Freud  sought  to  show  ft 
how  the  whole  career  and  life-work  of  a great  master  was  car- 
ried out  under  the  influence  of  juvenile  sexual  affairs.  Leon- 

* Traumdeutung,  3rd  ed.  p.  137  ff. 

fP.  139. 

tP.  365  f. 

||  Freud,  Der  Dichter  und  das  Phantasieren.  Kl.  Schriften  II,  pp. 
197-206. 

HP.  201. 

§ P.  205. 

**P.  205. 

ff  Freud,  Eine  Kindheitserinnerung  des  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1910. 


LEONARDO  DA  VINCI 


119 


ardo’s  poverty  in  love,*  his  obsessional  compulsion  to  investi- 
gation, which  thwarted  the  artistic  endeavors,!  the  origin  and 
content  of  certain  paintings,  his  ideal  homosexuality, $ are  ex- 
plained by  the  aid  of  individual  and  folk  psychological  parallels 
as  products  of  a phantasy  which  absorbed  the  great  artist  in  his 
cradle  days : He  wishes  to  remember  that  at  that  time,  a vul- 
ture came  to  him,  opened  his  mouth  with  its  tail  and  struck  his 
lips  many  times.  According  to  Egyptian  and  Church  mythol- 
ogy, the  vulture  was  the  bird  which  reproduced  only  in  female 
forms,  fructified  by  the  wind.  Leonardo,  an  illegitimate  child, 
was  taken  from  his  mother  when  five  years  old.  These  relations 
are  reflected  in  the  phantasy,  yes,  in  the  whole  life  and  activity 
of  the  artist.  One  can  only  properly  judge  this  surmise  of 
Freud’s  if  one  has  become  certain  of  the  interpretations  of 
dreams.  What  is  especially  important  for  us  now  is  this: 
Where  formerly,  one  spoke  of  inborn  tendencies,  and  because 
of  the  precarious  position  of  the  hereditary  theory,  had  to  re- 
nounce individual  explanation,  Freud  promises  to  carry  the 
causal  necessity  a few  important  steps  further  and  prove  par- 
tially directable  experiences  to  be  the  powers  of  fate.  Still,  he 
too,  fully  recognizes  the  ultimate  power  of  the  constitution. 

The  keen  statements  of  Freud  have  been  tested  and  sub- 
stantiated by  numerous  analysts.  Nevertheless,  since  I must 
assume  that  these  witnesses  are  objected  to,  it  should  be  re- 
membered in  this  connection  that  almost  every  good  descrip- 
tion of  life  and  analysis  of  artistic  works,  long  ago  pointed  to 
the  infantile  remnants.  I mention,  for  example,  the  biogra- 
phies of  Gottfried  Keller  and  Leo  Tolstoi. 

That  early  dispositional  attitudes  were  of  great  influence 
for  the  shaping  of  the  life,  has  been  shown  us  by  psychoana- 
lytic means  in  the  lives  of  many  artists : Sadger  encountered 
much  ill-will  in  3908  when  he  traced  back  the  delayed  develop- 
ment and  mental  disease  of  Ferdinand  Meyer  to  an  early  fixa- 
tion upon  the  mother.  His  method  of  consideration  was  even 

*P.  12. 

fP.  13. 

t P.  34. 


120 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


at  that  time  too  new.  Stekel  too  aroused  much  hostility  when 
he  brought  Grillparzer ’s  “Der  Traum,  ein  Leben”  (The 
Dream,  a life)  into  connection  with  infantile  family  impres- 
sions.* It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  poet’s  typical  motive  of  the 
man  standing  between  two  women  expresses  his  own  erotic 
attitude  toward  his  “eternal  bride”  and  his  sister.  Further, 
the  enormous  influence  of  the  mother  is  not  difficult  to  discern : 
Just  one  trait  shows  enough:  The  poet,  when  twenty-eight 
years  old,  after  the  suicide  of  his  mother,  broke  off  the  thread 
of  his  poetic  production,  in  the  midst  of  the  composition  of 
the  “Golden  Fleece,”  to  take  it  up  again  only  later  when  he 
played  the  G-Moll-Symphony  of  Mozart  with  a mother-sub- 
stitute (Karoline  Pichler)  this  being  the  last  composition  which 
he  had  played,  four-handed,  with  his  mother  before  her  tragic 
end.t  That  early  infantilism  is  exhibited  here,  is  not  proven. 

New  materials  were  provided  by  Sadger  in  his  monographs 
on  Kleist  $ and  Lenau.||  I myself  pointed  out  in  the  gro- 
tesquely colored  piety  of  the  Graf  von  Zinzendorf,  plain  after- 
effects of  the  first  years  of  childhood.!  Max  Graf  furnished 
successful  proof,  in  the  eyes  of  anyone  who  does  analytic  work, 
of  the  infantile  origin  of  the  favorite  theme  of  Richard  Wag- 
ner: The  woman  standing  between  two  men,  who  tears  her- 
self free  from  the  first,  the  husband  or  fiance,  and  throws  her- 
self into  the  arms  of  the  second. § In  Chapter  XII,  sectioh  10, 
we  shall  come  to  speak  of  this  and  likewise  of  the  very  scholarly 
and  sharpsighted  investigations  of  Otto  Rank. 

(b)  the  content  of  the  infantile  .repressions 

When  we  ask  concerning  the  content  of  the  infantile  roots 
buried  in  the  unconscious,  we  find  that  they  are  exactly  the 

* Stekel,  Dichtung  und  Neurose.  Bausteine  zur  Psychologie  des 
Kiinstlers  u.  des  Kunstwerkes.  Wiesbaden,  1909. 

f K.  Macke  is  in  error  when  he  explains  the  origin  of  the  poet  from 
the  spirit  of  music.  Biogr.  Einleitung  zu  Grillparzers  Werken,  XI. 

J J.  Sadger,  Heinrich  von  Kleist,  Wiesbaden,  1909. 

||  J.  Sadger,  Aus  d.  Liebesleben  Nicolaus  T.enaus.  1909. 

Tf  O.  Pfister,  Die  Frommigkeit  des  Grafen  L v.  Zinzendorf,  1910. 

§ Max  Graf,  Richard  Wagner  im  “fliegenden  Hollander,”  Leipzig  and 
Vienna,  1911. 


INFANTILE  IMPRESSIONS 


121 


same  ones  which  we  encountered  as  the  proximate  motives  of 
repressions  in  adults,  only  undeveloped,  corresponding  to  the 
age  of  childhood.  It  is  our  task  to  determine  as  well  as  pos- 
sible from  the  analytic  materials,  the  nature  of  the  things  which 
were  once  conscious  and  then  repressed,  before  we  present  our 
own  observations  to  the  reader’s  consideration.  Freud’s  asser- 
tion that  sexual  experiences  and  phantasies  of  the  first  years 
of  life  determine  very  strongly  the  later  mental  tendency,  with 
its  normal  and  abnormal  expressions,  met  violent  opposition. 
Even  scholars  who  had  studied  the  sexual  life  extensively  and 
without  prudery,  like  August  Forel,  flatly  denied  a sexual  life 
in  the  first  years  of  life.  So  experienced  an  analyst  as  Jung 
thinks  that  the  libido,  the  desire,  may  be  invested  in  the  stage 
of  childhood,  at  first  exclusively  in  the  form  of  the  hunger  in- 
stinct. ‘ ‘ The  ultimate,  and  in  its  functional  significance,  pre- 
dominating field  of  application  (of  libido)  is  sexuality,  which 
seems  at  first  to  be  extraordinarily  attached  to  the  nutrition 
function.  ” * Of  incest,  the  child,  on  account  of  his  undevel- 
oped sexuality,  is  not  yet  capable. t The  deepest  foundation 
of  the  socalled  incestuous  desire  runs  not  to  cohabitation  but 
to  the  wish  for  the  protection  enjoyed  in  the  mother’s  womb 
and  for  rebirth. % 

We  will  first  question  the  students  of  minds  who  are  free 
from  pretended  infection  with  the  mental  epidemic  of  analysis. 
It  has  been  shown  that  sensual  childish  wishes  directed  toward 
the  parents,  which  are  of  undisputable  erotic  nature,  were 
known  and  described  by  many  poets.  Stendhal  confesses: 
“I  was  always  in  love  with  my  mother.  I wished  always  to 
kiss  my  mother  and  wished  there  were  no  clothes.  I detested 
my  father  when  he  came  to  us  and  interrupted  our  kisses.  I 
wished  to  give  them  to  her  always  on  the  breast.  One  should 
deign  to  realize  that  I lost  her  when  I was  scarcely  seven  years 
old.”  Baudelaire  testifies:  “What  does  the  child  love  so 
passionately  in  his  mother,  his  nurse,  his  twin  sister?  Is  it 

* Jung,  Wandlungen  und  Symbole  der  Libido,  Jahrbuch  IV,  p.  180. 

t P.  279. 

% P.  267. 


122 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


simply  the  being  who  nourishes,  combs,  washes  and  rocks  him  ? 
It  is  also  the  tenderness  and  sensual  delight.  ’ ’ Rosegger  re- 
marks : “I  admit  indeed  that  in  the  love  between  mother  and 
son  there  exists  a bit  of  the  sexual — unconscious  of  course. 
A mother  loves  her  son  quite  differently  from  her  daughter.”  * 
Ganghofer  reports  a slight  attack  of  anxiety  which  he  under- 
went in  his  fourth  year  in  an  erotic  experience:  “A  girl  of 
eighteen  years  stepped  over  the  little  fellow  as  he  lay  in  bed.”  t 

Such  confessions  do  not  prove  the  universality  of  such  emo- 
tions. The  extensive  material  on  which  Freud  based  his  well- 
known  thesis  of  the  importance  of  the  infantile  sexuality,  is 
not  published.  The  only  two  detailed  analyses  of  children 
which  our  literature  affords,  those  of  Freud  and  Jung,  contain 
extremely  important  material  but  they  do  not  prove  Freud’s 
thesis  that  all  eroticism  is  derived  from  sexual  pleasure  or  is 
built  on  the  pleasure  of  taking  nourishment,  as  Jung  has  re- 
cently assumed.  Maeder  speaks  of  two  types  of  women  who 
may  be  differentiated  even  in  the  third  and  fourth  years  of 
life : the  mother  and  the  coquette.  J But  he  does  not  publish 
the  analytic  material. 

One  cannot  be  surprised  that  well-meaning  but  superficial 
critics  cannot  make  anything  out  of  the  important  theory  of 
infantile  sexuality. 

2.  Personal,  Observations 
(a)  clear  sexual  roots 

A sixteen  year  old  pupil  suffers,  among  other  things,  from 
anxiety  that  his  nose  (otherwise  quite  normal)  excites  un- 
pleasant comment.  Only  by  strong  self-control,  can  he  go 
upon  the  street  and  he  carefully  conceals  the  anxiety-provoking 
member  with  his  hand.  The  anxiety  had  appeared  very  early : 
At  ten  months,  it  broke  out  on  various  occasions,  for  example, 
upon  the  sound  of  rattling  wagons,  then  in  the  second  year, 

* From  Rank,  Inzest-Motiv,  32  f. 

f Zbl.  I,  p.  1G5  f. 

J uber  zwei  Frauentypen.  Zbl.  I,  pp.  573-582, 


ANXIETY  PHENOMENA 


123 


it  concentrated  itself  upon  pigeons  and  children  who  could 
not  yet  walk  and  were  just  learning,  as  well  as  on  snails.  For 
years,  a little  dwarf  persecuted  the  youngster  in  dreams.  I 
had  him  first  describe  more  exactly  the  anxiety  over  pigeons 
and  heard  with  astonishment:  “I  was  not  afraid  of  being 
bitten  by  the  doves  but  was  anxious  lest  I be  touched  by  the 
thin  skin  on  the  feet.”  The  children  excited  anxiety  because 
their  little  legs  represented  sexual  symbolism.  It  required 
no  special  sharp-sightedness  to  assert  with  much  certainty  the 
cause  of  the  phobia.  The  little  dwarf  who  constantly  per- 
secuted him,  was  what  is  called  in  popular  speech,  “the  little 
man,”  which  is  rendered  still  plainer  by  the  cowl  of  the  dwarf. 
The  half  stiff  legs  of  little  children,  as  well  as  the  snails,  must 
refer  to  the  same  object.  The  skin  on  the  legs  obviously  refers 
to  the  prepuce ; the  anxiety  over  touching  it,  corresponds,  like 
every  anxiety,  to  a repressed  wish.  That  the  child,  a little  over 
a year  old,  had  noticed  the  foreskin,  must  be  explained  on  the 
ground  of  special  irritation,  and  likewise  the  anxiety  at  ten 
months  of  age.  I therefore  explained  to  the  astonished  father 
that  his  son  was  suffering  from  the  after-affects  of  a phimosis- 
operation  undergone  before  the  tenth  month  and  probably 
also  from  later  threats  of  castration.  My  conjecture  was  en- 
tirely confirmed.  At  seven  years,  and  probably  earlier,  the 
boy ’s  mother  had  threatened  him  with  amputation  of  the  penis 
because  he  was  masturbating.  More  recent  occasion  for  the 
anxiety  regarding  the  nose  came  from  the  harmless  remark  of  a 
comrade  that  he,  our  patient,  had  a potato  nose.  Urged  to 
think  clearly  of  the  nose  and  give  all  his  associations,  he  said : 
“The  nose  is  thick,  round,  sticking  out  in  front.”  That  the 
feeling  of  shame  applied  to  an  organ  with  similar  character- 
istics, which  had  played  an  ominous  role  in  his  earliest  child- 
hood, he  saw  at  once. 

A little  lad  of  nine  years  become  ill  with  twitchings  of  the 
arms.  I refrained  from  analysis  and  sent  him  to  an  elderly 
neurologist  with  the  report  that  the  lad  had  spread  the  report 
among  his  fellow  students  that  his  mother  practiced  fellatio 
with  him,  while  the  woman  accused,  asserted  that  she  had  taken 


124 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


into  her  mouth  only  the  nipples  of  her  child.  I reported 
further  that  the  boy  wished  constantly  and  impatiently  to  go 
to  his  mother  in  bed  and  exhibited  erections  in  the  bath.  The 
physician  answered  that  we  were  dealing  with  “epileptoid  at- 
tacks” which  certainly  have  nothing  to  do  with  sexuality.  To 
my  second  inquiry  if  it  might  not  be  hysteria,  I received  an 
angry  tirade  against  Freud’s  psychoanalysis,  while  his  own 
psychoanalysis,  which  he  had  practiced  for  twenty  years,  was 
extolled,  and  also  the  concession  that  only  after  a week’s 
observation  could  it  be  determined  whether  hysteria  or  epilepsy 
were  present.  Naturally,  I did  not  allow  myself  to  be  easily 
diverted  in  this  particular  case  from  my  pedagogic  and  pas- 
toral rights  because  a little  conflict  with  a physician  sprang 
from  my  analytic  activity;  I impressed  on  the  mother,  firmly 
though  with  considerate  restraint,  the  inordinate  desire  of  her 
little  son.  The  boy  recovered  at  once  from  his  attacks  while  the 
jealous  neurologist,  with  his  painful  prudery  and  materialistic 
method  of  consideration,  in  spite  of  electrical  apparatus  and 
dietetic  treatment,  would  probably  have  helped  neither  the 
mental  nor  physical  health  of  the  child.  The  last  report  I 
received  concerning  the  boy  was  five  years  after  the  conversa- 
tion ; he  had  remained  well  during  that  time. 

A merchant  aged  thirty-three,  married  for  one  year,  suffered 
from  psychic  impotence,  which  could  not  be  cured  by  the  phy- 
sician consulted.  The  family  life  threatened  to  be  disrupted 
since  the  wife  had  an  unbounded  longing  for  children  and 
told  her  husband  that  she  could  no  longer  love  him  since  she 
felt  herself  deceived  by  him.  It  turned  out  that  his  sexuality 
was  entirely  infantile : he  loved  to  cling  to  his  wife  but  other- 
wise behaved  purely  passively.  Often,  he  wished  to  carry  his 
wife  on  his  back.  If,  after  great  exertion,  a premature  ejacu- 
lation occurred,  he  felt  pain  in  his  penis.  Although  he  had 
never  masturbated  peripherally,  he  accused  himself  of  onan- 
ism. Justly,  for  the  phantasies  to  which  he  had  given  himself 
were  extraordinarily  loaded  with  emotion. 

The  causes  were  at  once  revealed  by  simple  questioning: 
When  three  years  old,  my  patient  was  taken  into  bed  by  the 


SEXUAL  ROOTS  OF  NEUROSES 


125 


maid  and  pressed  ardently  against  her.  When,,  seven  years 
old,  he  carried  a little  girl  on  his  back.  The  maid  called  him 
a nasty  fellow  and  threatened  to  tell  his  mother,  whereupon, 
the  youngster  got  the  impression  that  he  had  done  something 
terribly  improper,  which  belief  he  powerfully  repressed  into 
his  unconscious.  The  wish,  to  carry  his  wife  on  his  back,  is 
accordingly  clear  to  us ; naturally,  in  the  presence  of  his  wife, 
he  did  not  recall  the  childhood  experience.  A sanctimonious 
young  man,  pupil  of  an  extreme  theological  institute,  practiced 
fellatio  with  him,  during  which  the  pain  in  his  penis  at  the 
time  of  ejaculation  first  made  its  appearance.  More  important 
than  all  this  was  the  fact  that  he  once  surprised  his  mother 
undressed.  From  his  dreams,  strong  homosexual  tendency 
was  evident.  In  the  waking  state  the  patient  showed  only  a 
strong  desire  to  see  bathing  boys  or  the  sturdy  calves  of  young 
peasants.  After  this  unsuitable  utilization  of  instinct  had 
been  recognized  and  inhibited,  normal  potency  appeared,  his 
wife’s  love  returned  and  soon  a strapping  child  crowned  the 
newly  concluded  union. 

The  example  seems  to  me  especially  instructive  for  our  in- 
vestigation in  one  point.  One  can  ask  whether  the  cuddling 
of  the  three  year  old  child  was  already  of  a sexual  nature  or 
whether  pleasant  experiences  of  an  earlier  period,  memories 
of  the  taking  of  nourishment  besides  the  body  warmth  now  felt, 
created  the  pleasure,  which  then  came  to  repression.  But 
that  the  boy  perceived  clear  sexual  innervations  when  he  car- 
ried the  little  girl,  I consider  excluded.  Almost  all  boys  have 
experienced  similar  things.  But  the  prudish  and  brutal  maid 
exaggerated  the  bagatelle  into  a grievous  sexual  trauma,  she 
forced  the  harmless  experience  into  the  center  of  the  sexual 
life,  just  as  unskilled  educators,  by  false  threats  concerning 
masturbation,  help  to  overaccentuate  it  and  strengthen  its  in- 
juriousness. 

I could  easily  give  from  my  records  a very  long  series  of 
further  examples  to  prove  a sexual  root  for  neurotic  processes. 
When  one  sees  a well  educated,  upright  girl,  of  socalled  good 
family,  one  at  first  considers  it  unthinkable  that  evil  things 


126 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


could  have  taken  place  even  under  the  protection  of  the  paren- 
tal roof  and  the  parents  are  usually  the  last  persons  to  believe 
it.  But  the  stubborn  facts  cannot  be  eliminated  from  the 
world  by  well  meaning  wishes. 

(b)  erotic  sources 

A lad  of  eighteen  years  suffers  from  melancholia,  pains  in 
his  arm  which  often  make  writing  impossible,  further,  from 
violent  cramps  in  the  thigh  and  especially  from  erotic  obses- 
sions. He  falls  in  violent  love  with  a number  of  girls,  only  to 
very  soon  lose  his  love  instantly  if  he  receives  favor.  To 
extremes,  he  does  not  allow  it  to  come.  Still  he  is  forthwith 
irresistibly  driven  to  another  beauty,  no  matter  how  great  re- 
proaches he  makes  against  himself  because  of  his  perfidious 
conduct.  The  arm  trouble  broke  out  when  he  had  to  confess 
to  his  father  a crime  against  property  and  a foul  love  story 
tormented  him.  The  pains  in  the  leg  formed  a defensive 
measure  against  new  love  affairs.  The  beginning  Don  Juan- 
ism  refers  to  the  mother : she  suffered  from  his  third  year  until 
her  death,  for  a period  of  seven  years,  from  pulmonary  tuber- 
culosis and  had  to  reside  in  various  sanatoriums  and  many 
health  resorts.  Often,  she  returned  to  her  family;  then  the 
child’s  nurse  would  be  dismissed.  As  soon  as  the  mother  went 
away  again,  another  was  hired.  The  child,  therefore,  trans- 
ferred his  love  to  many  female  subjects,  but  at  the  same  time, 
constantly  sought  his  mother.  The  youth  now  repeats  the 
same  thing.  He  seeks  his  mother  with  fervent  longing,  often 
thinks  he  has  found  her,  and  then,  disillusioned,  sees  his  error. 

The  lad  was  free  from  masturbation  and  possessed  good 
principles.  The  sexual  root  which  lurked  behind  his  eroticism 
soon  came  to  light,  however.  One  day,  as  he  was  ascending  * 
the  stairs,  terrible  asthma  with  palpitation  of  the  heart  seized 
him,  together  with  a crick  in  the  back.  Commanded  to  fix  his 
attention  on  this  occurrence,  he  reported  that  his  father  had 
shortly  before  written  to  him  of  his  intended  visit.  Further, 
it  occurred  to  him  that  a year  before,  he  had  received  a letter 

* See  above,  page  94. 


HYSTERICAL  SYMPTOMS 


127 


with  same  content  but  had  averted  the  visit  by  telegraph, 
which,  this  time,  did  not  go  easily.  The  pain  in  the  back  re- 
minded him  that  in  the  afternoon,  a rendezvous  in  the  forest 
had  taken  place.  During  the  caressings,  the  youth  bent  over 
his  girl,  whereupon  a tree-trunk  hurt  him  painfully  in  that 
part  of  his  back.  Therefore  the  hysterical  symptom  trans- 
ports him  by  way  of  wish  into  the  situation,  so  pleasant  at  that 
time,  to  which  he  has  now  fled  upon  his  father’s  announcement. 
Naturally,  he  could  not  guess  this  meaning  of  his  crick  in  the 
back.  Only  when  I had  him  fix  his  attention  sharply  on  the 
symptom,  did  the  reminiscence  come.  The  asthma  took  us 
back  to  the  first  years  of  childhood.  As  a small  child,  our  pa- 
tient frequently  had  hallucinations  (“sexual  apparitions”),* 
upon  the  appearance  of  which,  he  fled  anxiously  to  the  bed  of 
his  elder  brother.  He  saw  two  panting  figures : One,  a man 
armed  with  a knife  or  revolver  and  the  other,  a woman  ordi- 
narily carrying  a broom.  The  boy  had  (like  the  one  mentioned 
on  page  68)  observed  his  parents  in  the  conjugal  bed  and 
thereby  suffered  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  the  neuro- 
sis. Without  analysis,  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  dis- 
cover these  facts. 

All  symptoms,  with  the  exception  of  the  cramp  in  the  thigh, 
disappeared  quickly,  unfortunately  too  quickly.  The  remain- 
ing pain  also  subsided  to  a minimum  and  therewith  also  the 
interest  in  the  analysis.  The  attitude  toward  his  father  and 
along  with  this,  his  attitude  toward  humanity  in  general,  was 
still  not  normal.  After  an  insignificant  conflict  with  the  well 
meaning  and  estimable  man,  he  joined  his  brother  who  had 
wandered  to  a distant  part  of  the  world.  Perhaps  this  step 
redounded  to  his  advantage,  still  he  can  scarcely  avoid  a hard 
school.  The  hysterical  pains  disappeared  immediately  after 
his  departure. 

The  erotic  conflict  seems  also  to  predominate  in  the  following 
case  which  I will  sketch  because  of  its  valuable  pedagogic  ma- 
terial, in  spite  of  its  fragmentary  character:  A woman  of 
twenty-seven  years  has  been  for  three  years  entirely  incapable 

* Compare  Haberlin,  see  foot-note  on  page  13. 


128 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


of  working  and  has  wandered  from  one  sanitarium  to  another. 
Besides  many  hysterical  symptoms  (blinking  of  the  eyes, 
stomach  disorders,  etc.),  she  suffers  from  an  enormous  feeling 
of  insufficiency,  constant  mild  twilight  states,  often  extending 
over  months,  and  from  the  feeling  of  not  being  really  alive  but 
being  only  an  onlooker  at  life. 

When  five  years  of  age,  she  lost  her  mother,  when  seven  years 
old,  her  father.  Immediately  after  the  death  of  her  mother, 
she  was  taken  by  her  mother’s  sister.  The  intelligent  patient 
described  excellently  the  factors  which  chiefly  determined  her 
attitude  toward  life:  “As  a little  human  being,  I brought 
with  me  into  the  world  strong  instincts  in  every  regard,  which 
were,  however,  immediately  and  forcibly  suppressed,  by  a 
strict,  nervously  ill  mother.*  I still  well  recall  from  this 
period  a rebellion  against  this  coercive  compulsion,  at  the  same 
time,  however,  also  an  overstrong  love,  or  better,  sympathy, 
for  my  mother.  This  compulsion  was  continued  from  my  fifth 
year  on,  after  the  death  of  my  mother,  by  my  foster-mother, 
also  a nervous,  religious,  entirely  masochistic  character,  striv- 
ing toward  the  noblest  things  but  violently  suppressing  in  her- 
self and  others  all  life  instincts.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  I 
hated  this  compulsion  with  my  whole  soul,  my  whole  power  to 
love  is  still  inseparably  bound  up  in  her.  Now,  however,  all 
my  instincts,  my  childish  egoism,  are  suppressed  and  re- 
pressed. I have  from  earliest  childhood  led  a sham  life,  my 
longing  for  love  never  found  gratification  and  met  with  only 
severity  and  hardship.  Thus,  ‘I  cannot,’  became  the  funda- 
mental tone  of  my  life.  I was  always  tired  and  miserable, 
loved  sickness  because  of  the  loving  duties  connected  with  it. 
Envy  and  jealousy  tormented  me,  all  the  repressed  instincts 
developed  into  hatefulness. 

“Then,  after  many  years,  came  the  breakdown.  And  now, 
when  I clearly  recognize  the  facts,  I perceive  that  a gigantic 
power  for  love  and  life  lives  in  me,  but,  and  that  is  the 
shame,  I cannot  now  utilize  it  for  my  fellowmen.  My  egoism 

* Combating  sexual  acts  is  not  meant  here. 


INFANTILE  ROOTS  OF  REPRESSION  129 


which  has  been  repressed  and  denied  all  my  life  long,  breaks 
forth  in  all  its  power.  I have  had  nothing  from  life,  abso- 
lutely have  not  lived,  naturally  only  a part  of  my  ego  speaks 
thus  and  now  should  I work  for  my  fellowmen  who  have  had 
things  far  better  than  I,  whom  I envy,  of  whom  I am  jealous  ? 
I,  the  one  who  am  so  very  tired  and  miserable,  for  them,  who 
are  so  much  stronger  and  fresher  than  I ? 

‘ ‘ I become  almost  insane  in  this  state  of  indecision : my  one 
ego  loves  people  with  an  almost  consuming  power,  which  would 
devote  its  entire  self, — my  other  ego  wishes  all  for  self.  And 
now  I ought  to  fight ; but  one  fights  only  for  some  sort  of  an 
idea  and  this  I have  not — any  longer.  Once,  I believed  in  a 
guiding,  loving,  helping  omnipotence  by  whose  favor  it  was 
easy  to  fight.  Now,  all  that  is  destroyed  in  me. 

“My  first  childish  recollection  is  of  the  episode,  when  as  a 
child  of  three  or  four  years,  I thought  I offended  my  own 
mother.  Wherever  I should  be  in  the  world,  I would  have  the 
feeling  in  everything  which  I might  do,  it  had  no  value  since 
I must  make  good  this  great  injury  against  her.  And  yet  I 
can,  when  I am  with  my  foster-mother,  I really  do  nothing 
at  all  for  her  but  am  so  inhibited  in  my  efforts  as  never  before. 
As  a child  when  I did  something  good  and  clever,  I very  often 
had  the  thought:  ‘If  my  mother  could  see  this,  then  she 
would  no  longer  find  you  bad ! ’ And  at  the  same  time,  the 
hypervalent  thought  to  consider  the  bad,  perverse  and  im- 
proper as  belonging  to  me.  Thus  I had,  and  often  have,  re- 
sistance against  the  good,  some  such  a feeling  as:  ‘That  is 
indeed  not  your  place,  what  are  you  doing  there?’  That  is 
simply  ridiculous ! ’ ’ 

After  the  first  breakdown,  she  visited  a sanitarium  for  four 
or  five  months.  Immediately  thereafter,  she  had  a happy 
state  which  lasted  a half  year.  The  writings  of  Trine  and 
Johannes  Muller  awakened  in  her  a phantastic  piety  which  is 
reflected  in  the  following  views:  “I  am  God,  a part  of  the 
great  whole,  thus  certainly  of  some  value.  Therewith,  the 
heavy  load  which  had  thus  far  forced  me  to  be  worse  and  of 
less  value  than  others  for  my  whole  life,  was  lifted.  This 


ISO 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


true  nature  is  good,  for  it  is  of  God.  You  must  live  every 
moment  conformable  to  your  true  divine  nature,  then  all 
the  miserable,  petty,  unhealthy  part  of  you,  which  really  has 
no  reality,  will  disappear.” 

During  this  time,  she  was,  nevertheless,  outwardly  very 
ill  and  enjoyed,  besides  the  care  of  the  foster-mother,  the 
admiration  of  a neurotic  youth.  Because  of  the  latter,  she 
got  into  strife  with  her  mother  and  now  came  the  catastrophe. 
One  day,  her  friend  stroked  her  hand  affectionately,  she  be- 
came excited  and  resumed  the  masturbation  which  she  had 
practiced  when  five  or  six  years  old  and  then  repressed  under 
the  influence  of  her  sister  until  a half  year  ago.  Immediately, 
her  faith  in  the  beneficence  and  purity  of  nature  disappeared. 
“Why  is  my  view  of  the  world,  in  which,  I sought,  from  a 
child  up,  the  beautiful  and  good,  only  embittered?  Because 
I discovered  sensuousness  in  the  world?  Perhaps!  I can- 
not place  it  in  the  whole,  I shudder  before  so  much  filth. 
Never  has  anyone  (until  the  last  year)  spoken  to  me  of  it.  In 
the  home  of  my  foster-parents,  that  is  something  never  men- 
tioned. Nothing  but  religion — a religion  which  makes  me 
tired  and  sad.” 

“The  man  who  loves  me,  loses  my  esteem  entirely.  Al- 
though my  subconsciousness  seeks  to  force  this  love  (I  re- 
ceived three  marriage  proposals  in  this  manner),  this  love 
kills  my  own ! It  seems  to  me  as  if  that  must  be  otherwise  if 
I could  obey.”  This  much  from  written  communications 
before  the  beginning  of  the  treatment. 

The  analysis  was  rendered  difficult  by  the  fact  that  the  girl 
could  undertake  the  tiresome  journey  to  me  only  every  two 
weeks  and  had  to  fill  an  unpleasant  position  secluded  from 
external  interests.  Everyone  would  get  the  impression  at 
first  that  we  were  dealing  with  an  erotic  conflict.  The  over- 
strict  mother  and  foster-mother  killed  in  the  child  the  joy 
of  living  and  the  courage  for  her  own  enjoyment  and  endeavor, 
the  belief  in  loving  and  being  loved.  The  analytic  conversation 
strengthened  this  surmise  but  also  plainly  revealed  a sexual 
undercurrent.  I can  show  this  best  in  the  origin  of  the  twi- 


TWILIGHT  STATES 


131 


light  state:  The  first  attack  occurred  immediately  after  the 
departure  from  the  sanitarium.  The  girl  related:  “One 
day,  I was  pondering  on  the  text,  ‘ There  is  no  fear  in  love  but 
perfect  love  driveth  out  fear’  (1st  John  4:18).  I said  to 
myself:  “Let  everything  go,  yield  yourself  only  to  the 
father!”  Half  unconsciously,  I did  the  evil  deed.  I was  not 
ashamed,  I went  right  to  sleep.  I found  myself  in  the  twi- 
light state.”  For  a half  year,  there  was  no  repetition  of  this 
condition.  Then  the  fanatical  friend  stroked  and  kissed  her 
hand.  The  patient  became  excited  and  relapsed,  on  the  aver- 
age every  fourteen  days.  “I  was  afraid  of  this  end  and  of 
that  which  according  to  my  fixed  idea,  would  set  in.  But 
now  the  twilight  states  came  often.”  At  the  same  time,  the 
phantastic  piety  broke  down,  the  motivation  for  which  was 
clearly  disclosed. 

At  the  begining  of  the  analysis,  the  twilight  states  belonged 
to  the  worst  symptoms,  they  appeared  daily  for  hours  at  a 
time.  During  this  condition,  she  had  the  feeling  of  being 
bad.  Especially,  when  she  came  into  a strange  neighborhood 
or  when  something  was  changed  in  the  house,  the  twilight 
state  immediately  appeared.  She  thought:  “Yield  yourself 
entirely  to  the  twilight  state  and  submit  to  everything.” 
Often  she  had  the  distinct  impression:  “During  this  mental 
state,  it  is  again  like  the  time  when  I did  the  forbidden  thing ; 
at  that  time,  I was  as  if  in  another  world.  When  I performed 
the  evil  act,  the  world  and  nature  seemed  different  to  me..  I 
often  said  to  myself,  I would  like  to  be  in  another  world  and 
know  nothing  of  instincts.”  I impressed  upon  her  to  hold 
these  words  fast. 

Fourteen  days  later,  in  the  next  consultation,  the  symptom 
had  almost  disappeared.  The  patient  saw  that  it  merely 
realized  the  wish  for  this  masturbation  by  yielding  herself 
to  the  instincts  without  knowing  of  them.  Still,  the  occasion 
for  the  outbreak  of  this  symptom  showed  that  the  erotic  need, 
in  the  broader  sense,  lurked  behind  it.  The  patient  remem- 
bered plainly  when  ten  years  old  to  have  experienced  a deep, 
inexplicable  sadness  because  some  benches  stood  differently 


132 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


than  ordinarily.  Later,  every  change  in  the  surroundings 
brought  sadness.  The  benches  signify  that  the  corpse  of  the 
mother  lay  on  the  bier,  the  sadness  with  the  feeling  of  strange- 
ness, refers  to  the  pain  over  removal  to  the  new  mother  and 
the  homesickness  felt  at  that  time,  which  expressed  itself 
among  other  things  also  in  ordinary  dreams  of  the  earlier  home. 

Thus,  we  find  also  in  the  twilight  state,  the  erotic  need  as 
the  driving  force,  as  may  be  plainly  seen  from  peculiarities 
in  the  general  attitude  toward  reality.  The  sexuality,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  eroticism,  afforded  the  way  for  the  flight  from 
reality : the  half  sleep  which  each  time  excused  the  masturba- 
tion. Also,  the  whole  exquisite  masochistic  attitude  toward 
life  showed  a sexual  undercurrent.  When  seven  or  eight 
years  old,  the  child  phantasied  that  she  was  tormented  by  a 
witch  ( = foster-mother)  during  which,  she  had  to  hang  on  a 
trapeze  and  felt  sexual  pleasure  and  afterwards  anxiety.  In 
the  description  of  the  tortures  suffered,  she  ran  riot  in  forms. 
After  the  acquaintance  with  the  youth,  masochistic  ideas  again 
appeared,  plainly  sexually  toned,  with  subsequent  anxiety. 
Thus,  again  in  this  case,  I could  not  demonstrate  an  asexual 
eroticism  as  the  cause  of  illness. 

The  analysis  was  not  pursued  to  the  end.  Her  external 
conditions  were  unfavorable,  the  case  belonged  to  the  very 
difficult,  probably  there  was  catatonia;  her  brother  suffered 
from  a severe  form  of  this  disease  and  was  cared  for  in  an 
insane  asylum.  Further,  I still  knew  too  little  (as  at  that 
time,  most  analysts)  of  the  treatment  of  the  relations  between 
educator  and  pupil.  Nevertheless,  considerable  improvement 
was  attained.  The  chief  symptoms  (twilight  states  and  feel- 
ings of  inferiority)  disappeared  almost  entirely. 

In  the  following,  case,  sexuality  in  the  narrower  sense,  was 
not  spoken  of  at  all : 

A native  of  Holland,  aged  eighteen,  complained  to  me  that 
he  suffered  from  severe  pains,  twitchings  and  often  from 
pseudo-paralysis  of  the  right  arm  and  shoulder  so  that  writing 
and  piano  playing  were  rendered  well  nigh  impossible  The 
trouble  was  ‘ ‘ nervous.  ’ ’ 


MELANCHOLIA 


133 


Upon  being  questioned,  he  said  that  he  suffered  from  severe 
emotional  ill  humor.  The  problem  of  suicide  occupied  his 
thoughts  a great  deal,  especially  since  he  has  read  Goethe’s 
“Werther,”  Ibsen’s  “Gespenster”  and  some  similar  gloomy 
literary  works.  Still,  he  would  yield  to  no  suicidal  impulses, 
which  turned  out  later  to  be  an  untrue  assertion. 

A year  later,  the  youth  succeeded  in  mastering  his  resistance 
to  analysis  and  analyst.  The  exploration  of  the  symptom 
proceeded  with  such  ease,  because  of  this  circumstance,  that 
the  more  involved  analysis  of  resistance,  which  is  usually 
unavoidable  in  severe  cases  and  always  much  more  penetrating 
and  in  which,  the  analyst  leaves  to  the  patient  almost  entire 
direction  of  the  conversation,  could  be  omitted. 

The  patient  said  that  two  years  before,  he  read  Goethe’s 
“Werther”  without  knowing  the  reason  for  his  reading  it, 
as  he  at  once  added  spontaneously.  A short  time  later,  there 
broke  out  on  one  hand,  severe  pains,  which,  beginning  in  the 
upper  arm,  shot  through  the  whole  arm,  and  on  the  other  hand, 
suicidal  impulses,  which,  but  for  the  love  of  his  parents, 
would  probably  have  led  to  an  act  of  desperation. 

Obviously,  that  dimly  perceived  reason  for  identification 
with  the  suffering  Werther,  was  in  an  unhappy  love  affair. 
For  about  five  years,  the  youth  has  had  Platonic  relations 
wfith  a girl  of  same  age,  who  attracted  him  and  pleased  him 
immensely  but  also  angered  him  by  moods  and  pretended  ex- 
aggerated reserve.  He  constantly  wavered  between  being  joy- 
ous and  sorrowful.  The  quarrels,  in  which  the  little  dame 
showred  her  love  in  the  best  form,  were  followed  by  sweet 
reconciliations.  The  Werther  mood  proceeded  from  a final 
separation,  which,  according  to  the  assertion  of  the  patient, 
had  come  from  the  circumstance  that  the  young  lady  upon 
occasion  of  a walk  with  her  lover,  had  withdrawn  in  rude  and 
cowardly  manner.  Thus  the  suicidal  impulse  corresponded  to 
the  damming  back  of  erotic  emotions. 

Longing  for  death  and  refusal  of  suicide  formed  a com- 
promise in  numerous  dreams  in  which  the  youth,  tired  of 
life,  escaped  from  life  without  guilt  to  himself,  for  instance, 


134 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


by  falling  from  the  window.  The  erotic  background  is  plainly 
discernible  to  the  experienced  observer  from  the  typical  sym- 
bol of  falling. 

While  the  patient  put  the  blame  for  the  rupture  upon  the 
jilted  friend,  he  was  silent  concerning  the  real  motive  and 
the  burning  self-reproach.  Only  the  analysis  elicited  from 
him  the  confession  that  some  comrades  had  represented  to 
him  that  the  girl  possessed  too  little  charm  and  too  few  talents 
and  that  he  should  have  far  higher  aspirations,  etc.  The 
anxious  attitude  toward  the  one  formerly  so  hotly  desired  justi- 
fied the  brusque  jilting  so  little  that  he  had  to  accuse  himself 
of  ungentlemanliness.  Too  proud  to  pick  up  again  the  severed 
threads,  he  inwardly  renounced  love  for  girls  in  general  and 
surrendered  to  worldweariness.  Hysteria  at  once  intervened 
as  the  avenger  of  the  injured  amor. 

The  analysis  of  the  pains  in  the  arms  proceeded  rapidly. 
Keeping  the  symptom  in  view,  the  young  man  recalled  that 
his  father  had  asked  him  during  one  of  his  attacks  of  pain, 
“in  especially  gentle  tone”  what  ailed  him.  In  this,  the  pa- 
tient betrayed  his  father-complex  which  frequently  caused 
the  production  of  the  symptom  in  order  to  extort  sympathy. 

In  the  second  place,  the  patient  remembered  while  associat- 
ing to  unpleasant  innervations  in  the  arm,  a scene  which  he 
had  experienced  with  his  esteemed  music  teacher.  The  latter 
said  to  him,  several  years  ago,  on  account  of  bad  arm  position 
in  piano  playing:  “I  wouldn’t  have  thought  you  could  be 
so  clumsy,”  by  which,  the  incipient  artist  thought  himself 
wounded  in  his  honor. 

Finally,  the  decisive  trauma  came  to  view.  Seven  years 
before  the  analysis,  the  patient  had  one  day  driven  away 
several  girls  who  sat  on  a wall,  by  throwing  stones  at  them 
and  then  sitting  on  the  wall  himself.  After  awhile,  he  wished 
to  bring  still  more  stones  but  in  so  doing,  fell  so  hard  that 
he  broke  his  collar  bone.  The  reduction  of  the  fracture  was 
successfully  accomplished  only  on  the  third  day,  accompanied 
by  severe  pain. 

This  confession  made  intelligible  to  us,  why  the  break  with 


UNCONSCIOUS  MOTIVES 


135 


his  girl  friend  caused  hysterical  phenomena  in  the  arm.  That 
familiar  identification  process,  which  may  be  included  in  the 
formula,  “it  is  again  as  at  that  time,”  came  into  action.  As 
the  eleven  year  old  boy  had  considered  his  pains  in  the  arm  a 
just  punishment  for  his  ungentlemanliness  against  the  fair 
sex — the  accident  clearly  had  the  meaning  of  an  unintentional, 
even  though  subconsciously  desired,  self-punishment — so  the 
sixteen  year  old  youth  saw  himself  branded  as  ungentlemanly 
and  brutal  before  the  bar  of  his  conscience.  The  memory  of 
the  earlier  ordeal  did  not  come  to  clear  consciousness.  But 
the  need  for  expiation,  which  gave  the  faithless  more  to  do 
than  the  loss  of  the  once  beloved  maiden,  obtained  satisfaction 
by  creating  the  painful  symptom  which  may  therefore  be  recog- 
nized here  as  a wishfulfillment.  To  self-accusation,  the  mem- 
ory of  the  piano-teacher  also  points ; this  would  say : “You,  too, 
were  no  virtuoso ; how  then  could  the  lack  of  talents  in  your 
girl  friend  give  you  the  right  to  cast  her  off?  You  are  just 
as  much  in  the  wrong  as  that  time  on  the  wall  when  judgment 
overtook  you.”  Consequently,  the  hysteria  represented  the 
expiation-complex,  just  as  the  anxiety  symptom  did  the  block- 
ing up  of  the  eroticism. 

A short  time  after  the  beginning  of  the  suicidal  impulse 
and  the  physical  phenomena  accompanying  the  same,  which 
increased  as  we  know,  even  to  paralysis,  there  came  the  down- 
fall of  his  faith  in  God.  Formerly,  he  had  thanked  God  fer- 
vently for  his  love  for  his  girl  friend.  Since  the  gift  proved 
to  be  delusive,  the  giver  must  also  fall — a psychological  pro- 
cess which  may  be  often  observed  where  the  erotic  disturbance 
leads  to  renunciation  of  every  love  which  has  marriage  in 
view. 

Again,  after  a short  space  of  time,  the  youth  fell  out  with 
his  father,  who  for  the  most  part  had  been  little  concerned 
with  his  love  affair.  When  the  son,  in  his  distress,  occasionally 
showed  his  distaste  for  life,  the  father  became  terribly  ex- 
cited, called  suicide  pathological  and  unreasonable,  a sign  of 
deficient  faith  in  God  and  moral  fickleness.  As  the  only  means 
of  help,  he  recommended  work  and  prayer. 


136 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


After  about  a year  had  passed,  there  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  young  atheist,  who  was  completely  dominated  by  his 
skepticism,  some  beautiful  Madonna  pictures.  The  intpression 
was  so  overwhelming  that  he  immediately  began  to  pray  to 
Mary.  His  good  Reformed  conscience,  which  had  been  de- 
veloped by  the  spiritual  influence  of  his  religious  teacher  who 
excelled  in  critical  acumen  as  well  as  in  sympathy,  he  soothed 
by  a false  conclusion : since  there  was  for  him  no  longer  a 
Christ  and  he  believed  in  no  God,  then  he  need  make  no  re- 
proach if  he  now  lifted  his  heart  to  the  Heavenly  Virgin. 
Shortly  before  this  sublimation,  the  sister  of  his  former  sweet- 
heart had  greeted  him  most  graciously,  at  which  time,  the 
similarity  between  the  sisters  struck  him  and  the  noble  bearing 
of  the  girl  inspired  him  with  a secret  longing,  the  desire  for  an 
ideal  sister  of  the  lost  fiancee. 

In  this  adoration  of  the  Madonna,  the  father-,  mother-  and 
bride-complexes  are  all  manifested.  The  longing  for  the  ideal 
Virgin  takes  the  place  of  the  earlier  inclination  toward  the 
loved  one.  To  love  Mary,  the  beautiful,  pure,  spotless  one,  did 
not  subject  him  to  the  danger  of  later  disillusionment  and 
harsh  interference  from  the  side  of  father  and  friends.  Fur- 
ther, the  God-Mother,  with  her  boundless  love  for  her  misun- 
derstood, suffering  son,  provided  a substitute  for  his  own 
mother  who  allowed  him  to  miss  the  tone  of  loving  consolation. 
Finally,  however,  the  Queen  of  Heaven  represented  divine 
supremacy  without  bearing  the  fatal  name  of  father  or  other- 
wise recalling  the  austere,  uncomprehending  father.  In  the 
background,  there  naturally  lurked  the  pleasure  in  avenging 
himself  on  the  Creator  by  pious  adoration  of  the  Madonna 
and  on  the  strict  Protestant  father,  by  the  Catholic  cult. 

Thus,  Mary  represents  the  beloved  one,  yet,  being  without 
physical  and  mental  defects,  she  stood  for  the  mother  and 
further,  being  without  human  shortsightedness,  she  takes  the 
place  of  the  earthly  and  heavenly  father  and  that  without 
tormenting  austerity. 

"What  a rich  substitute,  the  divine  Virgin  afforded  the 
shattered  hysteric,  is  shown  by  the  following  event.  When  the 


ADORATION  OF  MADONNA 


137 


pains  became  unbearable,  the  patient  felt  bimself  compelled 
to  travel  to  Einsiedeln.  He  appears  before  the  famous  altar 
of  Mary  and  will  say  bis  prayers,  when,  in  an  instant,  the  pain 
has  gone.  No  wonder!  The  sufferer  has  found  his  beloved 
again  and  in  the  person  of  the  graciously  forgiving  one.  His 
self-accusations  have  therewith  become  groundless,  he  is  no 
longer  the  unchivalrous  person  who  cruelly  left  his  beloved 
in  the  lurch. 

That,  in  spite  of  this,  the  sublimation  miscarried,  is  shown 
by  the  quick  reappearance  of  physical  and  mental  troubles. 
Painfully,  the  youth  dragged  himself  through  life,  his  achieve- 
ments suffering  great  loss. 

More  than  a half  year,  he  remained  under  the  sway  of  the 
Madonna.  Then  he  fell  in  love  with  a young  girl  whom  he 
informed  at  once,  in  characteristic  fashion,  of  his  suicidal 
thoughts.  The  sublimated  libido,  which  the  damming  of  the 
primary  eroticism  had  raised  to  heavenly  heights,  flowed  out 
to  the  new  object,  while  for  Mary,  there  remained  only  modest 
admiration  without  any  especial  ardor. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  relation  to  the  father  continued 
strained.  The  son,  longing  to  be  understood,  felt  ungratified. 
Hence,  a sincere  attitude  toward  God,  the  Heavenly  Father, 
was  also  impossible.  As  usually  happens  in  such  cases,  the 
sulking  youth  constructed  all  kinds  of  objections  to  God’s  pur- 
poses and  fortified  himself  behind  the  unfathomableness  of  the 
idea  of  God,  but  was,  nevertheless,  himself  not  at  all  sure  of 
the  validity  of  his  objections  and  suffered  from  internal  deso- 
lation. Occasionally,  also  before  the  analysis,  he  prayed  to  a 
higher  power  whom  he  would  under  no  consideration  call  God. 
My  task  consisted  less  in  refuting  the  threadbare  theoretical 
arguments  than  in  soothing  and  conciliatory  conversation  con- 
cerning the  relation  toward  the  well-meaning  father,  whose 
error  was  not  greater  than  that  of  thousands  of  educators  who 
lack  all  neurological  understanding. 

Three  weeks  before  our  conversation,  the  hysteria  had  flared 
up  again,  though  in  diminished  intensity.  The  analysis 
brought  to  light  the  circumstance  that  the  lovesick  youth,  on 


138 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


one  occasion,  heard  music  poorly  rendered,  on  another,  saw 
poor  handwriting.  The  reader  probably  surmises  already  that 
the  new  girl  friend  plays  and  writes  badly,  thus  presenting 
the  danger  of  a new  estrangement.  The  discovery  of  this  con- 
nection was  not  necessary  to  convince  the  patient  of  the  correct- 
ness of  our  interpretation  but  it  brought  a surprising  and  sig- 
nificant confirmation  of  telling  force. 

As  there  was  still  some  time  remaining,  I informed  myself 
concerning  some  other  traces  of  “nervousness.”  It  turned 
out  that  the  youth  became  terribly  frightened  and  trembled 
violently  when  he  was  called  suddenly.  The  most  important 
trauma  proved  to  be  a peevish  call  of  the  father  who  could 
not  allow  the  boy  to  show  himself  on  the  street  with  his  first 
girl  friend.  To-day,  the  youth  is  afraid  that  his  father  may 
interfere  to  destroy  his  new  affair.  Since  with  him,  as  with 
so  many  neurotics,  his  superiors  and  teachers  represent  a sub- 
stitute of  the  father,  his  fright  is  easily  explained. 

The  effect  of  the  conversation,  which,  because  of  its  super- 
ficial nature,  scarcely  deserves  the  name,  analysis,  was  pro- 
nounced. The  talented  young  man  was  strongly  affected  by 
the  glance  into  the  causal  connection  of  mental  processes  which 
had  caused  him  such  frightful  suffering.  With  his  father, 
whom  he  had  caused  so  much  concern,  he  became  reconciled  by 
a free  confession.  The  cultural  deficiency  of  his  girl  friend, 
with  whom  an  ideal  relation  existed,  he  made  light  of.  After 
a week,  he  reported  triumphantly  to  his  former  pastor,  to  whom 
he  again  brought  unbounded  confidence,  that  he  had  now 
found  peace  with  God  and  felt  himself  again  a completely 
healthy,  happy  and  fearless  man.  This  fortunate  condition 
has  continued  to  the  present  (three  years),  an  indication  that 
even  a somewhat  ordinary  symptom  analysis,  which  is  not  to  be 
altogether  recommended  for  imitation,  may  work  efficiently  in 
the  absence  of  much  resistance.* 

Similarly,  sexual  motives  were  lacking  in  the  anamnesis  of 

* From  my  article:  “Zur  Psychologie  des  hyster.  Madonnenkultus.” 
Zbl.  Psa.  I,  Part  1,  reprinted  in  Z.  f.  Religionspsychologie  V (1911), 
pp.  263-271. 


NON-EROTIC  SOURCES 


139 


the  following  case : A woman,  at  the  beginning  of  the  meno- 
pause, reported  that  she  felt  twitchings  in  her  hand  and  feared 
that  St.  Vitus’  dance,  which  she  had  had  when  fifteen  to  seven- 
teen years  old  and  which  had  been  treated  at  that  time  with 
electricity  and  hydrotherapy,  would  break  out  again.  The 
cause  of  that  illness  lay  in  a frightful  experience:  She  had 
boasted  (in  self -tormenting  provocation)  that  she  could  not  be 
scared.  A boy,  to  test  her,  threw  himself  from  a tree  into 
the  snow  right  in  front  of  her.  The  infantile  root  of  the 
trouble  was  easy  to  find:  the  drunken  father  had  pushed  his 
three  year  old  daughter  through  a glass  door,  of  which  episode, 
a scar  under  the  eye  remained  as  proof.  Before  the  recent 
outbreak  of  twitching,  a new  fright  had  occurred:  The  son 
of  our  patient  had  been  taken  home  by  the  police  because  of 
a theft.  The  mother  fell  in  a faint  from  fear  that  the  de- 
tective’s dog  would  jump  in  her  face.  Whether  sexual  factors 
also  aided,  I do  not  know.  A real  analysis,  I would  not  under- 
take because  of  the  critical  age  of  the  woman.  When  I met  her 
three  and  a half  years  later,  she  was  well.  Probably  she  would 
have  visited  me  long  before  if  the  symptoms  had  not  disap- 
peared soon. 

(c)  NON-EROTIC  SOURCES 

No  matter  how  strong  objections  I raise  against  deriving 
the  whole  mental  life  from  sexuality  and  eroticism,  I cannot 
disguise  the  embarrassment  which  now  seizes  me  when  I must 
name  the  roots  of  repression  outside  of  the  love-life.  For  the 
child,  the  attributes  derived  from  the  ego-instincts  are  most 
intimately  intermingled  with  relations  to  parents,  brothers, 
sisters  and  friends.  But  we  emphasize  the  fact  that  by  no 
means  merely  sensual  affection  binds  the  child  to  father  and 
mother.  Even  the  one  year  old  child  shows  an  outspoken 
instinct  for  self-assertion.  Proudly,  he  shows  how  big  he  is. 
My  experience  shows  that  Alfred  Adler  generalizes  too  strongly 
the  significance  of  organic  inferiority  for  the  origin  of  the 
feeling  of  inferiority,  the  overcoming  of  which  causes  the 
neurosis,  and  underestimates  the  effect  of  erotic  obstacles. 


140 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


But  no  one  denies  that  many  neuroses  rest  on  the  vain  attempt 
to  create  self-esteem  or  on  the  effort  to  avoid  a one-time  suf- 
fering of  childhood  (compare  143f).  There,  too,  a gratify- 
ing love  seems  to  be  able  to  compensate  for  the  deficiency. 

Further,  according  to  my  experience,  the  feeling  of  in- 
tellectual or  moral  inferiority  presses  just  as  grievously  on  the 
spirit  and  determines  just  as  strongly  the  outbreak  of  neurotic 
suffering. 

Let  us  not  forget  that  the  distinction  between  sexual  and 
ego  instincts  (Freud  *)  is  an  abstraction.  In  reality,  there 
exists  in  ambition,  which,  on  account  of  want  of  appreciation, 
loss  of  means,  etc.,  may  come  into  severest  repression,  a con- 
siderable amount  of  eroticism,  perhaps  the  wish  to  impress  the 
father  or  the  ladies.  Therefore,  one  can  often  help  such  per- 
plexed ones,  analytically.  But  also,  in  the  eroticism,  there  is 
often,  probably  always,  a certain  amount,  even  though  small, 
of  instinctive  desire  for  self-esteem  or  self-accomplishment. 
Sexual  traumata  often  occasion  feelings  of  inferiority. 

Adler’s  denial  of  the  etiological  significance  of  the  sexual 
life  in  general  (Adler  & Fortmiiller,  “Heilen  und  Bilden,” 
Munich,  1914,  page  102),  I consider  a fundamentally  false 
view.  (See  my  article:  “Die  Padagogik  der  Adlerschen 
Schule”  in  Berner  Semvnarllatter  VIII,  pages  159-173.) 

That  the  ego  instincts  may  be  repressed,  is  admitted ; this 
is  a possibility  but  I have  never  seen  it.  But  we  are  already 
beyond  the  bounds  of  our  discussion. 


See  above,  page  72. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  REPRESSION  PROCESS 

The  observations  given  above  enable  us  to  understand  more 
exactly  the  nature  of  the  repression  process  and  its  general 
conditions.  So  far  as  possible,  therefore,  I shall  omit  new 
foundations  for  induction. 

1.  The  Traumatic  Repression 

In  the  beginning  of  the  psychoanalytic  investigation,  it  was 
thought  that  there  must  be  assumed,  as  the  cause  of  every 
neurosis,  a shocking  occurrence,  a so-called  trauma.  Breuer 
and  Freud  said  in  their  first  publication:  “Our  experiences 
have  shown  us  that  the  various  symptoms,  which  pass  for 
spontaneous,  one  might  say  idiopathic  (primary)  manifesta- 
tions of  hysteria,  exist  in  just  as  strict  relation  to  the  causative 
trauma  as  those  of  the  above-named  (so-called  traumatic 
hysteria).”  * The  painful  memory  of  the  shock  remained  in 
the  unconscious  and  produced  its  effect  from  there  “in  the 
manner  of  a foreign  body.”  It  was  only  necessary  to  allow 
the  reminiscence  to  be  “ abreacted  ’ ’ by  full  oral  expression  with 
accompanying  affects,  to  put  everything  in  order,  t This  was 
the  view  of  the  followers  of  the  “Cathartic  Method.” 

Though  the  widest  field  was  thus  granted  to  the  trauma, 
still,  Breuer  at  least,  limited  the  psychological  method  of  con- 
sideration by  asserting  that  a great  number  of  characteristic 
phenomena  went  back,  not  to  ideas,  but  to  physical  irritations.! 

This  method  of  consideration  was  historically  necessary  so 
long  as  we  were  not  in  a position  to  penetrate  the  deeper 

* Studien  fiber  Hysterie  (preliminary  report),  p.  2. 

t P.  255. 

$P.  166. 


141 


142 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


mental  strata.  The  connection  between  shock  and  symptom 
was  right  at  hand,  the  hereditary  defect  of  the  nervous  system 
was  also  recognized.  Hence,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  de- 
mand for  causality  was  satisfied  for  awhile  with  the  discovery 
of  the  trauma. 

It  is  only  to  be  regretted  that  even  to-day,  many  who  speak 
in  detraction  of  psychoanalysis  consider  that  view,  which  was 
certainly  a valuable  transition  stage  in  its  way,  as  the  complete 
and  final  position  of  psychoanalysis. 

Our  consideration  of  the  infantile  roots  of  the  repression 
has  shown  us  that  also  behind  the  traumatic  hysteria  there 
exists  infantile  material.  Since  that  material  was  somewhat 
scanty,  another  example  may  be  given : 

Before  I knew  Freud,  I treated  an  hysterical  girl,  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  who  had  suffered  for  some  years  from  in- 
creasing melancholia,  irritability,  diminished  capacity  for  work 
and  chronic  pains  in  the  stomach.  The  latter  trouble  had  been 
treated  in  vain  for  five  years  with  powders,  pumps  and  dietetic 
regulations.  Further,  the  consolations,  exhortations  and  pray- 
ers of  constant  pastoral  attention  availed  nothing  except  to 
gain  me  the  confidence  of  the  patient.  One  day,  she  confessed 
voluntarily  that  five  years  before,  her  drunken  mother  pulled 
her  daughter  by  the  hair  to  the  floor,  held  her  head  over  an  ash 
receptacle  and  threatened  to  kill  her  with  the  axe.  After  this 
confession  had  been  made,  accompanied  by  much  affect,  the 
stomachache  disappeared,  not  to  reappear  up  till  now  (five 
years).  A half  year  after  this  cure,  which  astonished  me 
greatly  at  the  time,  I learned  to  recognize  unconscious  motives 
for  the  first  time,  being  taught  by  Freud  in  the  meantime. 
The  girl  had  often  said:  “The  scene  with  the  mother  lies 
hard  on  my  stomach.”  Still  later,  her  considerably  older 
sister  reported  to  me  that  many  years  before  she  had  been 
through  an  entirely  similar  affair  with  the  alcoholic  mother. 
It  is  fairly  certain  that  something  of  that  kind  had  befallen 
my  patient  with  the  stomach  trouble  in  the  early  years,  at  all 
events,  something  similar. 

Anyway,  an  analogous  event  always  precedes  the  shock. 


OVERDETERMINATION  OF  SYMPTOMS  143 


Hence  the  neurotic  symptom  has  several  determining  factors, 
at  least  two.  Therefore,  it  is  called  over-determined.  Freud 
speaks  of  the  experience  “that  no  hysterical  symptom  can  pro- 
ceed entirely  from  a real  experience  but  that  every  time,  the 
memory  of  earlier  experiences  awakened  by  associations,  col- 
laborates in  the  causation  of  the  symptom.”*  The  same 
phenomenon  occurred  later  in  the  trauma  and  other  normal 
performances.  We  have  often  had  opportunity  and  shall  have 
it  many  times  again,  to  show  these  over-determinations,  f If  I 
do  not  point  out  all  of  them,  it  is  usually  because  the  demands 
of  brevity  prevent,  often  also,  because  the  analysis  did  not  pene- 
trate so  deep.  I can  only  assert  that  in  general,  where  one  has 
opportunity  for  searching  exploration,  the  messenger  of  the 
earlier  determinants  may  be  detected. 

As  the  trauma  has  gained  a part  of  its  importance  from  the 
overdeterminants  and  must  yield  to  these,  so  there  came  a 
further  backward  pressure  from  the  observation  that  the 
trauma  is  often  brought  about  by  unconscious  intention.!  We 
introduced  some  examples  when  we  spoke  of  the  psychology  of 
unlucky  persons  and  related  phenomena!] 

Finally,  one  often  notes  that  the  event  causing  the  shock  is, 
in  itself,  really  of  insignificant  nature,  but  has  gained  an 
immense  importance  from  its  previous  history.  One  sees, 
even  in  daily  life,  how  an  indifferent  remark,  a trifling  event, 
can  call  forth  a disproportionate  discharge  of  affect.  The 
folk-saying  regarding  such  events  is : a ticklish  point  has  been 
touched.  The  analysis  gives  us  the  motive  for  the  ticklishness : 
To  the  present  irritation,  are  added  contributions  of  affect 
which  have  been  prepared  from  previous  analogous  experiences. 
We  shall  be  able  to  picture  this  after  we  have  examined  trans- 

* Freud,  Zur  ^Ftiologie  der  Hysterie.  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  155. 

t Also  more  recent  impressions  may  determine,  where  the  infantile 
prerequisite  is  given. 

t K.  Abraham,  uber  die  Bedeutung  sexueller  Jugendtraumen  fiir  die 
Symptomatologie  der  Dementia  prseeox.  Zbl.  f.  d.  Nervenheilkunde 
u.  Psychiatric,  1907,  No.  238.  C.  G.  Jung,  Neue  Bahnen  der  Psy- 
chology. Raschers  Jahrbuch,  Vol.  Ill,  1911. 

||  See  above,  p.  110. 


144* 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


position  of  emotion,  symbolic  representation  and  other  proc- 
esses. 

In  the  end,  the  precipitating  circumstance  becomes  so  ir- 
relevant that  we  can  no  longer  speak  of  a trauma. 

An  example  in  this  connection:  A youth  of  twenty  years 
sees,  four  days  before  he  must  devote  himself  to  military  serv- 
ice, a funeral  procession  which  disturbs  him.  Marched  to  the 
school  for  recruits,  he  is  seized  with  terrible  anxiety  that  he 
will  never  leave  the  place  alive.  With  difficulty  he  crowds 
back  a suicidal  impulse.  Only  toward  the  end  of  his  service, 
does  the  trouble  find  an  end.  A few  days  after  his  discharge, 
I undertook  the  analysis.  [The  funeral  procession.]  “I  see 
only  the  hearse  with  the  coachman.  Now,  there  occurs  to  me 
something  of  which  I had  not  thought:  The  coachman  for- 
merly lived  on  the  same  street  as  we.  When  I was  six  years 
old,  I witnessed  an  accident  to  him.  The  horses  ran  away  and 
a passenger  fell  from  the  wagon.  They  laid  a black  cloth  over 
the  man  and  took  him  to  the  hospital.  I ran  weeping  to  my 
mother.” 

[The  coachman.]  “My  father.  I carried  his  photograph 
in  my  pocket  before  my  military  service  and  also  when  received 
there ; the  photograph  showed  him  in  uniform.  ’ ’ 

[The  coffin.]  “Now'  J think  of  that  of  my  former  local 
preacher  G.  This  man  was  my  Sunday  School  teacher.  He 
died  at  about  fifty  when  I was  about  six.  ’ ’ [Your  father  now  ? ] 
“He  is  also  fifty  years  old.” 

In  the  night  before  his  furlough,  he  dreamed : “I  came  into 
our  room  in  X Street  (where  the  coachman  lived).  My 
parents  and  other  black  clothed  persons  were  present.  By  the 
cupboard,  stood  a coffin.  They  were  discussing  serious  things. 
I heard  the  words : One  must  go.  I showed  my  train  ticket. 
The  glances  of  all  fell  on  me.  My  father  looked  at  me  ear- 
nestly and  said:  You  have  such  a ticket;  with  that,  you 
cannot  go  back.  The  others  wept.  I replied  that  I had  asked 
the  conductor  several  times  whether  the  ticket  was  right  and 
he  had  said : “Yes,  with  that  you  go  farther.” 

[The  room.]  “Here,  the  funeral  of  an  old  member  of  the 


INTERPRETATION  OF  ASSOCIATIONS  145 


household  took  place.  I saw  the  coffin  carried  by  the  cupboard 
which  figured  in  the  dream.”  (We  leave  aside  the  symbolic 
significance.)  [The  content  of  the  coffin.]  ‘ ‘ It  was  covered. ’ ’ 
[Whom  do  you  think  was  in  the  coffin?]  “My  grandfather 
died  a year  ago.  Mother  wept  as  now  in  the  dream. ” [One 
must  go.]  “I  can  only  think  of  myself.”  [The  pale  faces.] 

‘ ‘ I saw  my  father  thus  after  an  earthquake.  In  service,  I had 
great  joy  when  a letter  or  message  came  from  him.  Of  my 
obsession,  I said  nothing  to  him.” 

Before  the  obsession  which  broke  out  during  his  service, 
another  had  prevailed  for  some  days:  Namely,  the  doubt 
whether  the  free  interpretation  of  the  Bible,  to  which  he  had 
been  devoted  might  not  in  the  end  be  sinful. 

In  explanation,  it  is  to  be  added  that  the  father  of  the  patient 
is  a strict,  orthodox  man  of  austere  piety.  His  son  feared 
him  and  in  his  presence  suffered  all  kinds  of  constraint  of  gait, 
concerning  which  I will  report  in  another  place. 

Some  days  before  the  outbreak  of  the  anxiety,  the  youth  had 
to  lament  the  departure  of  his  beloved.  The  separation  pained 
him  deeply  for  he  feared  to  lose  the  girl  entirely. 

The  interpretation  of  the  incomplete  associations  seems  to 
run  something  as  follows:  The  coachman  means  the  father; 
that  he  lost  a passenger  is  repressed.  In  the  coffin,  a substitute 
for  the  father  was  phantasied,  a man  who,  from  his  position  as 
teacher,  his  age  and  his  piety,  now  refused  by  the  day-dreamer, 
could  serve  very  well  as  representative  of  the  repressed  father. 
Behind  this  phantasy,  lurks,  as  we  shall  show  later,  the  wish 
for  the  death  of  the  father.  This  wish  cannot  surprise  us  be- 
cause of  the  resentment  present.  (A  similar  example,  I have 
published  previously  * : Upon  reading  the  description  of  a 
funeral  procession,  a youth  became  violently  excited.  He,  too, 
phantasied  the  hated  father  and  his  substitute  in  the  coffin.) 
In  the  photograph  carried  in  the  pocket,  the  father  like  the 
coachman  wears  a uniform ; the  son  will  also  wear  one  in  a few 
days.  Thus,  the  primary  wish  is  the  unpermitted  death-wish 

* Ein  Fall  von  psychanalytiseher  Seelqorge  und  Seelenheilung. 
Evang.  Freiheit,  1909. 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


146 

which  is  repressed.  The  obsession  represents,  as  so  often,  a 
sin.  The  sacrifice  by  his  own  death  is  illuminated  by  the  com- 
mon possession  of  the  uniform  and  the  position  of  the  son. 

The  dream  shows  how  the  expectation  of  death  is  changed. 
The  conductor  promising  salvation  represents  the  colonel  who 
consoled  the  excited  recruit  in  friendly  manner.  The  strik- 
ingly strong  joy  over  news  from  the  father  is  comprehensible 
to  us  in  view  of  the  repressed  death  wish.  The  obsession 
receded  when  a young  girl  had  sent  him  a friendly  postcard. 

Of  a trauma,  there  can  be  no  mention  but  only  of  a recent 
(just  appeared)  irritation  or  actual  impression  (Freud).* 

2.  The  Phantastic  Repression 

Our  results,  we  find  expressed  by  Freud  in  the  “Traum- 
deutung”  in  the  formula:  “Not  on  the  memories  themselves, 
but  on  phantasies  formed  on  the  basis  of  memories,  depend 
the  hysterical  symptoms.”  We  can  say  the  same  of  all  other 
repressions.  Often,  phantasies  which  give  veiled  expression  to 
a strong  desire,  precede  the  outbreak  of  a pathological  symp- 
tom t in  which  the  latter  points  by  its  aspect  to  the  phantasies. 
It  w’ould  not  be  correct  to  say : it  is  the  phantasy  which  calls 
forth  the  neurotic  malady;  rather,  the  phantasy  is  only  a 
symptom  of  a blocking  of  an  instinct,  which,  under  certain 
circumstances,  must  lead  to  illness.  The  phantasies  are  often 
produced  on  a basis  of  a definite  disposition  by  the  accumula- 
tion of  little  events  which  bring  about  conviction.  In  some 
analyses,  we  saw  slights  by  the  parents  which  caused  painful, 
hence  to  be  repressed,  conviction  (83,  112)  ; at  other  times, 
sexual  incitements  occurred  (88,  94)  ; hate  led  to  inadmissible 
death  phantasies  (83,  145,  296),  the  unallowed  longing  worked 
stealthily,  etc.  (178). 

This  insight,  that  a phantasy  lies  between  reality  and  the 
repression,  is  of  great  importance  for  the  comprehension  of  the 
repression.  The  deeply  planted  instinct,  according  to  this 

*.See  above,  p.  152. 

t Freud,  Hysterische  Phantasien  und  ihre  Beziehung  zur  Bisexualitat. 

Kl.Schriften  II,  p.  138  ff. 


THE  FATHER-IMAGE 


147 


fundamentally  important  knowledge,  goes  back  not  directly  to 
reality  but  to  reality  expressed  in  the  phantasy,  which  reality 
is  real  only  in  imagination.  Thus,  when  a person  suffering 
from  obsessional  neurosis,  has  anxiety  concerning  a father  who 
is  long  since  dead,*  or  prays  for  him  (see  page  70),  this  is  not 
the  real  father,  but  without  the  person’s  knowing  the  fact,  it 
is  the  father-image  still  living  in  the  imagination  which  has 
attracted  the  eroticism  to  itself.  The  father-picture  (accord- 
ing to  Jung’s  expression  accepted  by  Freud,  the  father-image, 
Yater-Imago  t)  is  the  object  of  the  repressed  desire.  Or, 
when  an  hysterical  individual  is  attached  to  his  mother,  and 
drives  his  little  ship  of  life  in  unbelievably  rocky  courses  in 
order  to  find  her,  he  does  not  usually  proceed  to  her  as  she  is, 
but  to  her,  as  she  lives  in  his  unconscious  as  the  guardian  of 
his  childhood  days,  to  the  mother-image. t Hence,  the  in- 
fluence of  the  parents  is  in  no  way  interrupted  by  their  death. 
On  the  contrary,  we  see  a person  ruled  by  a dead  person  and 
that  indeed  for  his  whole  life-time. 

Thus,  the  neurotic  struggles  with  ghosts  and  even  the  normal 
individual  stands  continually  under  the  sway  of  unreal  forces 
which  guide  him  now  to  injury,  now  to  gain.  Getting  free 
from  Maya,  the  illusion,  is  in  fact  an  essential  part  of  the 
problem  of  salvation,  though  not  as  Buddhism  teaches  it.  The 
emancipation  from  the  unreal,  so  far  as  it  inhibits  life,  forms 
the  requisite  for  all  highest  development  of  the  noblest  mental 
powers.  Most  normal  individuals  also  suffer  from  inhibitions 
which  rob  them  of  a considerable  part  of  their  efficiency. 

The  content  of  the  phantasy  can  also  be  a theory  invested 
with  affect.  A girl  of  sixteen  years  suffered  regularly  at  the 
menstrual  epoch  from  vomiting.  It  turned  out  that  when  she 
was  small,  she  had  believed  that  children  were  bom  by  the 

* Freud,  Bemerkungen  ti.  e.  Fall  v.  Zwangsneurose.  Jahrb.  I,  p.  362. 

f Jung  coined  this  expression  in  connection  with  Spitteler’s  psycho- 
logical novel  “Imago,”  as  well  as  the  ancient  “Imagines  et  lares.” 
Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  164. 

I When  a young  man  seeks  a considerably  older  woman  for  a wife, 
it  is  not  quite  the  mother  of  his  first  years  of  life  who  floats  dimly 
through  his  mind. 


148 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


mouth.  After  she  had  gained  insight  in  this  connection,  the 
symptom  ceased  immediately.  Especially  do  creation-  and 
birth-theories  seem  to  be  of  great  importance  for  the  later 
development  of  the  individual*  In  an  elderly  woman,  I found 
the  cause  of  her  frigidity,  etc.,  to  be  a shocking  experience  of 
childhood:  She  saw,  under  the  bed  of  a parturient  woman, 
a string  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  children  were  pulled 
out  of  the  mother’s  body  by  the  aid  of  this  string. 

3.  The  Degree  op  Repression  (the  Unconscious  and 
Foreconscious) 

The  strength  of  the  repression  depends  on  many  factors: 
The  intensity  and  contradictoriness  of  the  factors  of  repression 
with  their  affects,  the  suddenness  of  the  conflict,  its  preparation 
by  practice  or  some  kind  of  experience  even  as  far  back  as  in- 
fancy, the  effect  of  related  processes,  the  further  directability 
of  the  sum  of  excitation,  the  more  or  less  clear  conception  of  a 
painful  idea,  the  resistance  against  the  mastery  of  reality  im- 
posed by  conscience  and  many  other  conditions  may  be  men- 
tioned. 

One  expects  at  the  beginning  that  the  repression  would  run 
through  a whole  scale  of  degrees.  In  the  common  course  of 
ideas,  we  see  one  content  of  consciousness  appear  in  the  place  of 
another.  The  narrowness  of  consciousness  presupposes  that 
kind  of  “repressions,”  I use  the  name  in  this  sense  reluctantly. 
Behind,  there  remains  a disposition,  the  strength  of  -which  can 
be  measured  by  means  of  various  methods.  I mention  those  of 
the  retained  members,  those  of  chance,  the  saving  method,  the 
method  of  aids  and  whatever  they  may  all  be  called. t Fur- 
ther, the  memories  which  were  lost  without  saving  discomfort 
cannot  all  be  reproduced,  even  where  they  undoubtedly  have  a 
powerful  effect.  Freud  points  out  that  just  our  most  im- 
portant memories,  those  which  influence  character  so  inten- 

* Freud,  fiber  infantile  Sexualtheorien.  Kl.  Schriften  II,  pp.  159- 
174. 

f M.  Offner,  Daa  Gedachtnis,  pp.  38-43. 


COURSE  OF  THE  PSYCHOANALYSIS  149 


sively,  which  go  back  to  the  educational  impressions  of  earliest 
youth,  almost  never  become  conscious  to  us,* 

The  stimulation  and  operation  of  the  dispositions,  the  so- 
called  reproduction,  takes  place  in  ordinary  forgetting  quite 
differently  than  in  that  where  a repression  in  the  narrow 
sense,  a violent  putting  away  of  a painful  idea,  has  occurred. 
If  we  will  speak  of  the  expressions  of  the  repression,  we  come 
to  speak  of  the  cases  in  which  a known  idea  resists  reproduc- 
tion in  a striking  manner  (Chapter  XII).  Especially  strong 
apperception  of  the  idea  sought  for  often  helps  over  the  dif- 
ficulty. 

Not  so  by  strong  repressions.  Ever  so  intensive  attempts 
to  find  the  subconscious  motive  result  at  first  fruitlessly.  It 
avails  not  at  all  that  the  patient  racks  his  brain,  the  idea 
sought  for  is  not  ready  for  consciousness,  no  matter  how 
certainly  it  may  give  notice  of  its  presence  in  pathological 
phenomena.  The  psychoanalytic  method,  too,  though  it  pene- 
trates under  the  surface  smoothly  and  easily  in  favorable  cases, 
possesses  no  magic  formula  which  opens  all  doors  at  a touch, 
nor  cleaves  all  overlying  strata.  Thus  far,  I have  given  par- 
ticularly simple  examples.  But  even  there,  I could  not  always 
disclose  the  byways  which  led  to  the  goal.  Months  and  even 
years  of  work  would  be,  and  often  are,  demanded  to  bring  back 
the  banned  idea,  the  elimination  of  wThich  many  times  requires 
the  most  tremendous  efforts  of  the  moral  consciousness  and  all 
the  affirmative  forces  of  personality,  and  then  the  task  would  be 
performed  only  in  part.  Mountains  of  obstacles  must  often  be 
removed,  before  a repressed  group  of  thoughts,  a so-called 
complex,  an  expression  introduced  by  Jung  and  Bleuler  and 
approved  by  Freud,  is  made  accessible  to  clear  consciousness. 
We  shall  hear  that  this  exploration  must  not  always  be  pur- 
sued to  the  deepest  roots. 

May  definite  degrees  of  repression  be  distinguished  from 
one  another  ? So  long  as  we  cannot  measure  the  energies  of  the 
instincts,  of  the  individual  functions  of  these,  and  of  the  re- 
lation of  individual  instinctive  activities,  an  exact  statement 

* Traumdeutung  2d  ed.  p.  333.  3rd  ed.  p.  361. 


150 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


of  the  degree  of  repression  is  not  to  be  thought  of.  Further, 
we  have  no  psychological  characteristic  for  the  marking  off  of 
different  stages.  An  apparently  harmless  symptom  may  have 
proceeded  from  strong  repression  or  from  a great  sum  of  lesser 
repressions,  a seemingly  doubtful  sign  often  rests  on  a weighty 
but  still  less  deeply  founded  denial. 

Freud  emphasizes  only  one  distinction:  that  between  the 
foreconscious  and  unconscious.  Because  of  their  psychological 
character,  we  may  discuss  these  at  this  point,  although  accord- 
ing to  the  relations  of  origin,  this  discussion  would  regularly 
come  under  the  effects  of  the  repression.  The  foreconscious 
is,  as  a non-conscious,  also  an  unconscious.  Still,  Freud 
recommends  keeping  the  two  expressions  sharply  differentiated 
(see  page  46).  The  excitation  processes  present  in  the  fore- 
conscious may,  according  to  him,  “appear  in  consciousness 
without  further  delay,  provided  certain  conditions  are  fulfilled, 
for  instance,  the  attainment  of  a certain  intensity,  a certain 
distribution  of  that  function  which  one  has  to  call  attention  and 
the  like.  It  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  system  which  holds  the 
key  to  voluntary  motor  activity.  The  system  behind  this,  we 
call  the  unconscious  because  it  has  no  entrance  to  conscious- 
ness except  through  the  foreconscious,  in  which  transition,  its 
excitation  process  must  have  been  subjected  to  changes.”  * 
In  the  child,  the  separation  of  the  two  functions  does  not 
exist,  t In  adults,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a sharp  boundary 
between  them,  over  which  boundary,  a sharp  censorial  control 
is  exercised. t 

Concerning  the  products  of  the  foreconscious,  we  are  taught : 
It  alone  can  afford  the  means  for  the  transfer  of  the  uncon- 
scious, instinctive  impulse  to  consciousness  and  to  the  control 
of  motor  function.il  It  inhibits  the  impulses  present  in  the 
unconscious.il  It  longs  to  sleep  and  when  irritations  occur 
which  would  affect  the  sleeper,  it  diverts  a part  of  its  attention 


* Traumdeutung  2d  ed.  p.  334,  3rd  ed.  p.  362. 
f P.  370.  ||  P.  377. 

fP.  377.  IIP.  386. 


THE  COMPLEX 


151 


to  these.*  In  neurotic  maladies,  the  unconscious  impulses  are 
subjected  to  the  foreeonscious  and  thereby  gain  their  way  to 
the  motor  function.  Every  neurotic  characteristic  shows  a 
conflict  between  the  foreconscious  and  the  unconscious.! 
“Proceeding  from  the  foreconscious,  the  unconscious  impulses 
control  our  speech  and  action  or  compel  hallucinatory  re- 
gression, and  direct  the  apparatus  not  appointed  for  them  by 
means  of  the  attraction  which  the  perceptions  exercise  on  the 
distribution  of  our  mental  energy.  This  condition,  we  call 
the  psychosis.  ” J In  the  hysterical  symptom,  a foreconscious 
motive  must  always  be  added  to  the  unconscious  motive  in  order 
that  both  wishes  may  be  realized  simultaneously  in  the  patho- 
logical phenomenon.  The  foreconscious  causes  cessations  of 
memories  and  affects.  ||  In  wit,  a foreconscious  thought  is  sub- 
jected to  unconscious  elaboration.!! 

Thus,  according  to  Freud,  the  unconscious  falls  into  two 
divisions:  That  of  unconscious,  incapable  of  attaining  con- 
sciousness in  the  narrower  sense,  and  that  of  the  foreconscious, 
which  under  cumulation  of  intensity  can  enter  consciousness. 
“The  foreeonscious  exists  like  a screen  between  the  system  of 
the  unconscious  and  that  of  consciousness.  It  bars  not  only 
the  entrance  (of  the  unconscious)  to  consciousness,  it  controls 
also  the  approach  to  voluntary  motor  activity  and  rules  the 
sending  out  of  a mobile  distributable  energy,  from  which  a 
share  is  entrusted  to  us  as  attention.”  § 

4.  Concept  op  the  Complex 

Under  the  term,  “emotionally  toned  complex,”  Jung 
originally  understood  “a  group  of  ideas  held  together  by  a 
definite  affect.  ” **  If,  however,  already  at  that  time,  we  spoke 
of  a “ pregnancy-complex, ” f f a “money-complex”  %%  and 

* P.  382.  II  P.  375. 

tP.  386.  UDer  Witz,  p.  141. 

t P.  377  f.  § Traumdeutung,  p.  410. 

**  Jung,  U.  d.  Verhalten  d.  Reaktionszeit  im  Assoziationsexperiment 
(4.  Beitr.  d.  diagnost.  Ass.-Studien ) , p.  14. 
tfP.  18.  $$P.  23. 


1 5% 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


others,  it  was  assumed  that  the  inclusive  bond  existed  not  in  the 
affective  field  but  in  the  intellectual.  This  speech  usage  has 
persisted.  Freud  describes  the  complex  in  agreement  with 
Bleuler  and  Jung  as  a “group  of  ideational  elements,  belonging 
together,  invested  with  affects”  * and  distinguishes  in  this  con- 
ception, conscious  and  unconscious  parts,  f Of  these  parts,  the 
unconscious  factor  is  the  more  important.  If  one  speaks  of 
the  “father-complex”  of  a person,  one  means  not  only  that  he 
loves  or  hates  the  father,  but  one  thinks  of  its  unconscious 
connection.  It  is  indeed  a surprising  fact  that  in  analytic  re- 
search, at  the  point  where  complete  indifference  toward  the 
father  and  mother  seems  to  exist,  an  intense  dependence  may 
appear,  against  which  dependence  no  intention  can  prevail. 

I use  the  term  complex,  therefore,  for  a coherent  group  of 
ideas,  emotionally  toned,  which  has  fallen,  wholly  or  in-  greater 
part,  to  the  unconscious. 

5.  Retention  and  Repulsion 

With  many  persons  who  have  previously  developed  nor- 
mally, the  repression  is  occasioned  by  extraordinarily  severe 
and  painful  events.  They  are  hurled  back  by  paths  which  are 
discussed  under  the  subject  of  so-called  regression  (Chapter 
X,  B.  5),  to  infantile  forms  of  activity.  With  others,  and 
indeed  with  persons  who  in  other  affairs,  display  abundant 
energy,  the  denial  of  the  actual  performance  demanded  and 
the  repression  appear  from  insignificant  external  causes. 
Among  relatives  of  the  age  of  puberty,  one  frequently  sees  this 
sad  change  occur  when  the  eroticism,  so  far  occupied  with 
parents  and  brothers  and  sisters,  should  turn  to  another  love- 
object. 

For  example,  a girl  of  sixteen  years  was  taken  ill  with  severe 
headache  and  was  therefore  removed  from  school  by  the  physi- 
cian. As  no  improvement  occurred,  she  complained  of  her 
condition  to  me  and  added  that  she  was  tormented  during 
sleepless  nights  by  the  fear  that  she  would  become  insane. 

* Freud,  liber  Psychoanalyse,  p.  30. 

f Freud,  Zur  Dynamik  der  libertragung.  Zbl.  II,  p.  169. 


UNCONSCIOUS  MOTIVES 


153 


The  confession  was  introduced  by  the  following  remark:  “I 
suffer  because  there  is  no  love  among  people.”  An  exagger- 
ated attachment  to  her  brother  was  disclosed  with  ease.  All 
other  youths  are  dunces  and  fops.  The  dreams  betray  love- 
phantasies  which  were  certainly  only  meant  symbolically. 
Every  thought  of  love  and  marriage  aroused  disgust.  The 
brother,  on  the  other  hand,  desires  that  his  sister  address  him 
formally  before  strangers  and  is  extremely  jealous  of  her.  He 
suffers  from  suicidal  impulses.  It  was  easy  to  break  down  the 
inhibition  and  to  dissipate  the  headache  as  well  as  the  obses- 
sions. 

Here,  too,  it  would  be  unjustified  to  make  indolence  culpable 
for  the  arrested  development.  Of  course,  every  transition  to  a 
new  stage  of  development  hides  difficulties  and  demands  sac- 
rifice, but  the  free,  healthy  person  takes  care  of  his  inner  im- 
perative without  the  injuries  of  repression  and  performs  his 
task  in  reality.  Grillparzer  describes  the  transitional  difficul- 
ties surpassingly  well  in  his  “Judin  von  Toledo”: 

Still  children  grow  and  wax  in  years, 

And  every  critical  age  in  development 
Gives  notice  of  itself  by  a discomfort, 

Or  often  an  illness  which  warns  us 

We  are  the  same  and  at  the  same  tifne,  also  different. 

And  the  other  is  suited  to  the  same. 

So  it  is  with  our  inmost  self, 

It  extends  and  describes 
A wider  circle  about  the  same  center. 

Where  an  attachment  from  the  past  is  present,  a task  easy 
in  itself,  becomes  an  enormous,  impossible  demand. 

In  reality  there  are  many  transitions  between  the  retention 
and  repulsion  types  (more  detailed  discussion  of  this  subject 
will  be  found  in  the  article:  “Psychoanalyse  und  Jugend- 
forschung,”  Berner  Seminarblatter  VIII,  J.  1914,  p.  194  ff. 
and  in  American  Journal  of  Psychology , 1914. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE  GENERAL  CONDITIONS 

As  we  now  prepare  to  determine  the  general  conditions 
under  which  repression  occurs,  as  well  as  the  laws  by  which  we 
have  arranged  the  individual  processes  with  an  aim  toward 
explaining  them,  we  are  met  by  a difficulty  which  compels  a 
troublesome  concession.  In  order  to  obtain  by  strict  induction 
a theory  of  the  special  processes  of  the  repression,  we  would 
have  to  introduce  an  immense  number  of  observations.  I 
recognize  that  in  the  two  to  three  thousand  hours  of  my 
analytic  work  thus  far,  enough  results  have  not  accumulated  to 
enable  me  to  give  by  examples,  with  sufficient  thoroughness  and 
completeness,  the  elements  of  the  repression  forces,  the  changes 
and  inner  connections  of  these.  The  temptation  is  great  to 
take  on  faith  a great  master  like  Freud  who  has  devoted  to 
psychoanalysis  his  incomparable  talents  for  observation  eight 
to  ten  hours  daily  aside  from  vacations  and  Sundays  for 
almost  two  decades.  But  this  appeal  to  him  would  only  be 
permissible  if  he  could  expose  his  immense  material  to  testing, 
which  is  possible  only  in  the  smallest  part.  Thus,  I must  put 
down  much  as  provisional  hypothesis  which  I might  assert  as 
certain  if  my  experience  were  larger;  indeed,  I fear,  because 
of  my  restraint,  to  be  looked  at  askance  by  more  than  one  older 
analyst. 

Nevertheless,  attention  must  be  given  to  the  differences  of 
opinion  prevailing  in  competent  circles.  While  ignorant  per- 
sons may  jest  over  the  present  uncertainty,  earnest  readers 
will  feel  themselves  called  upon  by  the  deficiencies  of  our  knowl- 
edge pointed  out,  to  aid  in  overcoming  the  great  difficulties. 


154 


FREUD’S  SEXUAL  THEORY 


155 


1.  The  Instincts  Sharing  in  the  Repression  in 
General 

(A)  FREUD ’S  SYNTHETIC  SEXUAL  THEORY 

We  recall  that  Freud,  although  he  recognises  beside  the  sex- 
ual instinct  also  the  ego  instincts,  believes  that  all  the  higher 
emotions  of  sympathy,  artistic  enjoyment  and  religion  develop 
from  sexual  desires  (see  above  page  80).  It  is,  therefore,  our 
task  to  present  his  sexual  theory  and  subject  it  to  criticism. 

According  to  Freud,  the  sexual  instinct,  which  is  also  desig- 
nated by  the  term  “libido,”  * is  composed  of  a number  of  par- 
tial instincts  which  are  active  even  in  the  child.  ‘ ‘ The  sexual 
instinct  of  the  child  reveals  itself  as  highly  composite ; it  per- 
mits a separation  into  many  components  which  arise  from 
various  sources.  The  instinct  is,  above  all,  still  independent 
of  the  function  of  reproduction,  in  the  service  of  which  it 
will  later  take  its  place.  It  serves  for  the  attainment  of  vari- 
ous kinds  of  pleasurable  sensations  which  we  include  together, 
according  to  analogies  and  connections,  as  sexual  pleasure. 
The  chief  source  of  the  infantile  sexual  pleasure  is  the  suitable 
excitation  of  certain  particularly  irritable  body  zones  which 
are  in  addition  to  the  genitals,  the  mouth,  anus,  urethral  orifice 
and  in  particular  also  the  skin  and  other  sensory  surfaces. 
Since  in  this  first  phase  of  the  child ’s  sexual  life,  the  gratifica- 
tion is  found  on  his  own  body  and  is  oblivious  of  a foreign 
object,  we  call  this  phase,  according  to  a word  coined  by  Have- 
lock Ellis,  “autoeroticism.”  Those  places  which  are  impor- 
tant for  the  gaining  of  sexual  pleasure,  we  call  erogenous  zones. 
The  pleasure-sucking  of  the  smallest  children  is  a good  example 
of  such  an  autoerotic  gratification  from  an  erogenous  zone ; the 
first  scientific  observer  of  this  phenomenon,  a pediatrist  named 
Lindner  of  Budapest,  has  already  rightly  interpreted  this  as 
sexual  gratification  and  written  exhaustively  of  its  transition 
into  other  and  higher  forms  of  sexual  activity.  Another  sex- 
ual gratification  of  this  period  of  life  is  the  masturbationary 

* Freud,  Drei  Abhandlungen  zur  Sexualtheorie,  p.  1. 


156 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


excitation  of  the  genitals  which  has  so  great  importance  for 
the  later  life  and  in  many  individuals  is  never  completely 
overcome.  Besides  these  and  other  autoerotic  activities,  there 
come  to  expression  very  early  in  the  child,  those  instinctive 
components  of  the  sexual  pleasure,  or  as  we  prefer  to  call  it, 
the  libido,  which  presuppose  another  person  (than  self)  as 
object.  These  instincts  appear  in  contrasting  pairs,  as  active 
and  passive;  as  the  most  important  representatives  of  this 
group,  I name  the  pleasure  of  inflicting  pain  (sadism)  with  its 
passive  opposite  (masochism),  and  the  active  and  passive 
pleasure  in  looking  (Schaulust)  from  the  former  of  which 
(active  Schaulust),  later,  the  desire  for  knowledge  branches 
off,  as  from  the  latter  (passive  Schaulust  = pleasure  from  being 
looked  at)  the  impulse  to  artistic  and  dramatic  exhibition. 
Other  sexual  activities  of  the  child  come  already  under  the 
viewpoint  of  the  object-choice,  in  which  another  person  be- 
comes of  chief  importance;  this  person  owes  her  importance 
originally  to  the  consideration  for  the  instinct  of  self-pres- 
ervation. The  distinction  of  sex  plays  in  this  infantile  period 
no  preeminent  role ; thus  you  can  assign  to  every  child  without 
doing  him  an  injustice,  a bit  of  homosexual  endowment.* 

We  will  pause  here  to  allow  the  critics  a word.t  Freud’s 
sexual  theory,  since  it  builds  the  sexual  instinct  out  of  a group 
of  partial  instincts,  may  be  designated  as  composite.  A priori, 
one  would  wonder  how  it  is  possible  that  from  such  entirely 
separated  sources,  there  should  result  a functional  group  which 
serves  the  one  aim  of  reproduction  so  excellently.  Is  this 
polyphyletic  conception  not  similar  to  an  analogous  one  which 
would  conceive  of  the  hunger  instinct  as  built  up  from  pleasure 
of  looking,  grasping,  chewing,  swallowing,  etc.?  The  theory 
of  evolution  shows  us  how  organs  are  refined  by  progressive 

* Freud,  uber  Psychoanalyse,  p.  47  f. 

f The  following  thoughts  first  came  to  expression  in  a seminary 
conducted  by  Dr.  Jung.  How  much  is  his  mental  product,  how  much 
I added  in  dependence  on  Herbart’s  combat  against  the  theory  of  the 
mental  faculties,  I cannot  to-day  state.  The  principal  differences  be- 
tween his  views  and  my  own  will  come  to  expression  later  in  several 
places. 


FREUD’S  SEXUAL  THEORY 


157 


differentiation,  thereby,  however,  ever  becoming  more  compli- 
cated. Never,  however,  so  far  as  I know,  does  biology  sup- 
pose the  complicated  structure  of  an  organ  to  have  been  formed 
from  a number  of  separate  partial  organs.  Further,  psy- 
chology has  stripped  off  the  old  faculty-psychology  which 
would  derive  the  higher  achievements  from  a number  of  sep- 
arate faculties.  Further,  it  recognizes  the  law  of  progressive 
differentiation. 

Freud  seems  to  represent  the  opposite  view.  This  is  only 
appearance,  however.  He  adheres  throughout  to  the  phenom- 
ena and  for  good  reasons,  provisionally  refuses  the  phylo- 
genetic and  metaphysical  methods  of  consideration  (in  con- 
trast to  Jung).  The  partial  instincts  are  not  elementary 
forces  for  him,  but  are,  according  to  his  explicit  explanation, 
susceptible  of  a further  reduction,  which  leads  on  the  one  side, 
to  a non-sexual  “instinct”  (compare  Bergson’s  ‘elan  vital’) 
and  reactions  to  organic  stimuli  (Drei  Abhandlungen,  page 
30).  Nothing  prevents  retaining  the  evolutionary  theory  of 
the  origin  and  selection  of  organs,  the  sensations  of  which  ap- 
pear within  the  sexual  instinct,  unhindered  by  Freud’s 
psychology.  Similarly,  the  phenomenological  psychology  of 
Freud  can  very  well  be  broadened  and  enriched  in  the  way 
of  an  evolutionary  method  of  consideration.  Freud  has  not 
spoken  the  final  word. 

But  may  all  parts  of  the  body,  which  Freud  has  called 
erogenous,  be  now  considered  as  sexual  sources  or  creators  of 
sexual  feelings?  As  an  example,  sucking  may  be  named.  It 
consists  in  sucking  motions  which  do  not  serve  the  taking  of 
nourishment.  Its  object  is  a part  of  the  lips,  the  finger  or 
the  toe.  ‘ ‘ The  pleasure-sucking  is  joined  to  complete  occupa- 
tion of  the  attention,  leads  either  to  falling  asleep  or  even 
to  a motor  reaction  in  a kind  of  orgasm.  Often,  there  is  com- 
bined with  the  pleasure-sucking  the  rubbing  of  certain  sensi- 
tive parts  of  the  body  as  the  breasts  or  external  genitals.  In 
this  way,  many  children  pass  from  sucking  to  masturbation. 
Of  the  sexual  nature  of  this  act,  no  observer  (except  Moll) 
has  doubted.  Still  in  the  face  of  this  bit  of  childish  sexual 


158 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


activity,  the  best  theories  derived  from  adults  leave  us  in  the 
lurch.”*  “It  is  plain  that  the  action  of  the  sucking  child 
is  determined  by  his  seeking  for  a pleasure  which  has  already 
been  experienced  and  is  now  remembered.  It  is  also  easy  to 
surmise  on  what  occasions,  the  child  obtained  the  first  experi- 
ences of  this  pleasure  which  it  now  endeavors  to  renew.  The 
first  activity  of  the  child  and  that  most  important  to  life,  the 
sucking  at  the  mother’s  breast  (or  its  substitute)  must  have 
made  it  acquainted  with  this  pleasure.  We  might  say,  the 
child’s  lips  have  served  as  an  erogenous  zone  and  the  stimulation 
by  the  warm  milk  stream  was  probably  the  cause  of  the  sensation 
of  pleasure.  Originally,  the  gratification  of  the  erogenous  zone 
was  united  with  the  gratification  of  the  need  of  nourishment. 
Whoever  sees  a child  sink  back  from  the  breast  satisfied  and 
fall  asleep  with  rosy  cheeks  and  happy  smile,  will  be  compelled 
to  say  that  this  picture  also  remains  a standard  for  the  ex- 
pression of  sexual  gratification  in  later  life.  Now  the  need 
for  repetition  of  sexual  gratification  is  separated  from  the 
need  for  taking  nourishment.”  t 

According  to  this  exposition,  the  sucking  serves  at  first 
for  the  gaining  of  pleasure  in  taking  nourishment.  Why  is 
this  motivation  not  sufficient  to  repeat  the  motion  on  objects 
which  are  similar  to  the  source  of  drink?  If  one  considers 
the  sucking  as  automatism,  why  should  he  not  put  away  the 
pleasure  agency  of  the  drinking  as  realized,  as  the  piano  player 
unconsciously  drums  out  a melody?  It  is  of  course  probable 
that  the  phenomenon  of  the  pleasure-sucking  is  overdeter- 
mined. But  may- not  the  pleasure  of  the  muscular  movement 
also  have  a share  ? Every  kicking  could  just  as  well  be  inter- 
preted sexually.  The  similarity  of  the  satisfied  child  to  the 
sexually  gratified  man  proves  nothing  for  the  sexual  pleasure 
of  the  former.  When  a child  energetically  desires  an  object 
and  obtains  it,  his  gesture  is  similar,  only  the  blood  is  not 
directed  to  the  intestinal  region  and  the  need  for  sleep  does 
not  appear  so  quickly.  If  we  assume  with  Freud  that  the  child 

* Freud,  Drei  Abhandlungen,  40  f. 

f P.  41  f. 


ANAL-EROTICISM 


159 


creates  his  reality  in  an  hallucinatory  manner,  then  the  in- 
tensity of  his  motions  will  also  not  surprise  us.  That  the 
mouth  has  an  erogenous  character  from  the  very  beginning, 
I cannot  therefore  consider  as  proven. 

To  be  sure,  under  certain  conditions,  the  mouth  sometimes 
acquires  the  significance  of  a sexual  organ. 

A boy  of  fourteen  and  a half  years  hates  his  younger 
brother  and  torments  him  in  spite  of  all  punishment.  Every 
morning,  he  awakens  him  by  sticking  his  finger  in  his  mouth. 
All  educational  means  have  been  powerless  against  this  habit. 
The  analysis  afforded  aid:  It  found  that  the  evildoer,  who 
had  been  misused  pederastically  by  his  comrades,  repeated 
those  scenes  in  an  obsessional  manner  by  symbolical  displace- 
ment, as  he  had  once  irritated  the  brother  to  fornication.  The 
finger  served  again  as  penis-symbol.  The  hate  proceeded  from 
denial  of  the  homosexual  love.  It  was  possible  without  trouble 
to  free  the  seducer  and  endangered  one  and  improve  the  atti- 
tude of  the  hostile  brother.  But  here  we  are  dealing  with  an 
effect  of  repression,  the  mechanism  of  which  we  will  have  to 
speak  later.  If  the  sucking  is  connected  with  other  motor 
acts  then  the  association  might  be  called  forth  by  the  common 
motor  pleasure,  whereby  the  sexual  sensations  would  be  awak- 
ened only  later. 

Further,  I cannot  consider  it  proven  that  the  irritation  of 
the  bowel-ending  is  originally  sexual.  Certainly  the  tickling 
occasioned  by  it  can  attract  sexual  libido,  the  same  as  the 
hunger  instinct  and  indeed,  mathematics,  but  the  pleasurable 
anal  sensations  need  not  therefore  be  of  sexual  nature.  I have, 
at  all  events,  often  observed  how  pent-up  sexual  desire  may 
take  possession  of  the  anal  zone.  A patient  of  thirty-eight 
years  who  had  not  been  able  to  get  rid  of  his  tormenting 
hemorrhoidal  itching  by  all  kinds  of  physical  and  chemical 
means,  lost  it  immediately  with  the  aid  of  the  analysis,  although 
the  nodules  remained.  It  turned  out  that  the  irritation  always 
broke  out  when  the  normal  sexual  gratification  or  even  when 
merely  the  eroticism  was  inhibited  by  refusal  on  the  part  of 
his  wife,  causing  a flight  to  his  mother  who  had  extracted  an 


160 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


intestinal  worm  from  him  when  he  was  a boy  of  about  five 
years.*  But  there  the  erogenesis  is  only  acquired.  When 
children  strive  to  obtain  heightened  irritation  of  the  anus 
by  holding  back  the  stool  (in  which,  according  to  Freud’s  im- 
portant discovery  which  I have  often  confirmed,  lies  the  cause 
of  the  frequent  infantile  constipation,  often  persisting  for 
a lifetime),  the  desire  for  tickling  sensations  suffices  for  ex- 
planation. 

Further,  I cannot  admit  the  eye  as  ad  erogenous  organ.  In 
itself,  it  is  not  once,  like  the  mouth,  intestinal  or  genital 
apparatus,  an  object  of  perception.  Only  that  which  is  seen 
can  cause  sexual  irritation.  Still,  the  eye  can  be  invested  with 
the  rank  of  a sexual  organ  by  later  reflexion.!  I know  many 
hysterical  girls  for  whom  the  eye  plainly  represents  the  peri- 
pheral female  organ.  Two  of  them  suffered  for  years  from 
reddened  eyes  which  defied  the  efforts  of  oculists  when  deflora- 
tion- or  birth-wishes  brought  these  and  other  hysterical  symp- 
toms to  expression.  One  of  these  girls  was  analyzed  by  me 
and  cured  of  the  phenomenon.  Another  hysterical  girl  of 
sixteen  years  was  seized  with  violent  anxiety  lest  she  should 
stick  herself  in  the  eye  while  stretching  the  forefinger  of  a 
glove.  The  day  before,  she  had  been  sexually  enlightened. 
What  finger  and  eye  stood  for,  was  easily  revealed  and  the 
anxiety  disappeared.  Further,  these  cases,  which  are  con- 
clusively substantiated  by  the  Indian  mythology,  do  not  speak 
in  favor  of  the  theory  of  the  physical  erogenous  root  of  the 
libido:  Indra,  because  of  a sexual  misdemeanor,  was  con- 
demned to  wear  spread  over  his  whole  body,  the  picture  of 
Yoni  (vulva) ; the  gods  took  pity  on  him  so  far  as  to  change 
the  Yonis  into  eyes.J 

Also,  the  irritation  of  the  sexual  organs  by  the  suckling  child, 
which  appears  later,  is  not  proven  to  be  a general  occurrence. 
Kecently,  objection  has  been  raised  against  this  observation  in 

* See  my  article : Kryptolalie,  Kryptographie  und  unbewusstes 
Vexierbild  bei  Normalen.  Jahrb.  Vol.  V.  (1913). 

t Compare  Freud,  Die  psycbogene  Sehstorung  in  psychoanalytischer 
Auffassung.  Arztliche  Fortbildung  1910,  No.  9. 

| Jung,  Wandlungen  u.  Symbole  d.  Libido. 


AMBIVALENT  FUNCTIONS 


161 


analytic  circles.  Keitler  asserted  that  Freud’s  observations 
■were  gained  on  the  sick  and  should  therefore  not  be  transferred 
to  healthy  individuals  because  the  psychoneurosis  rests  on  the 
disturbance  of  infantile  sexual  development.*  I do  not  con- 
sider myself  competent  to  decide  the  question.  But  this  much 
for  the  pedagogues  may  follow  as  important  result  of  psycho- 
analytic investigations,  namely,  that  onanism  in  children  is 
much  wider  spread  and  signifies  infinitely  more  than  was 
formerly  supposed. 

If  we  cannot  prove  the  “partial  instincts”  as  elements  of 
sexuality  from  erogenous  zones,  so  also  they  cannot  be  shown 
to  come  from  contrasting  paired  relations  to  the  object.  Such 
ambivalent  functions  (Bleuler)  are: 

1.  Hetero-  and  homosexuality,  that  is,  the  attitude  of  the 
sexual  instinct  toward  those  of  the  opposite  or  same  sex. 

2.  Sadism  and  masochism,  that  is,  gaining  pleasure  from 
inflicting  or  enduring  (self-inflicted)  suffering. 

3.  Activity  of  the  instinct  for  looking  and  exhibiting  (Schau- 
lust  and  Zeigetrieb). 

Concerning  these  contrasting  pairs,  Freud  points  out  that 
both  members  are  constantly  present  together  and  in  such 
manner  that  one  is  developed  stronger  than  the  other.  Every 
person  is  bisexually  or  bierotieally  endowed, t so  far  that  he 
sends  out  erotic  desires  toward  both  sexes.  The  heterosexual 
libido  leads  normally  to  marriage,  the  homosexual  to  friend- 
ship, still,  an  ideal  realization  of  instinct  in  art,  religion  and 
other  achievements  may  take  place.  Ordinarily,  the  boy  feels 
himself  drawn  more  to  the  mother,  the  girl  more  to  the  father. 
On  the  basis  of  his  analyses  of  neurotics,  Freud  considers  the 
background  of  this  erotic  relation  constantly  as  sexual  and 
speaks  accordingly  in  every  case  of  a fixation  on  the  parents,  of 
incest  repression.  He  recalls  the  saga  of  (Edipus  who  killed 
his  father  and  married  his  mother  and  finds  that  this  same 

* Die  Onanie.  Vierzehn  Beitrage  zu  einer  Diskussion  der  Wiener 
psa.  Vereinigung,  Wiesbaden,  1912,  p.  91. 

f Freud,  Hyster.  Phant,  u.  i.  Beziehungen  zur  Bisexualitiit.  KI. 
Schriften  II,  p.  144.  Drei  Abh..  p.  6 ff. 


162 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


incestuous  desire  lies  at  the  bottom  of  every  neurosis.  This 
attitude,  which  occurs  regularly  with  changed  sex  roles  also 
in  women,  Freud  calls  the  nuclear  complex  of  the  neurosis. 
Now,  it  is  quite  beyond  doubt  that  countless  nervous  maladies, 
upon  careful  investigation,  go  back  to  this  nucleus — one  may 
strive  ever  so  long  against  this  assumption,  but  it  is  simply 
irresistible.  But  that  all  neuroses  rest  on  this  attitude  toward 
the  family,  is  for  me  not  quite  conclusively  established.  Per- 
haps Freud  is  right,  perhaps  he  has  generalized  too  early. 

That  sadism  and  masochism  constantly  occur  together  can- 
not be  denied.  Whoever  investigates  these  two  expressions 
of  instinct  receives  the  impression  that  two  functions  which  be- 
long together,  and  which  when  mingled  are  not  striking,  have 
been  torn  apart.  Freud  confirms  this  view  in  a letter  and 
illustrates  it  with  the  apt  comparison,  there  may  be  heaped 
up  in  one  corner  of  the  cake  all  the  sugar,  in  the  other,  all 
the  salt. 

I have  given  an  example  on  page  77.  Here  is  another : On 
page  132,  we  heard  of  a girl  of  seven  or  eight  years,  who,  during 
her  phantasy  of  being  mistreated  by  a witch  (foster-mother) 
while  hanging  on  the  trapeze,  felt  sexual  pleasure  and  then 
anxiety.  The  same  child  then  liked  to  play  with  boys  and 
girls  games  in  which  severe  punishment  was  applied.  Who- 
ever was  naughty,  was  scorched  with  a burning-mirror,  which 
afforded  our  patient  great  pleasure,  or  had  to  kneel  submis- 
sively. When  the  turn  came  to  our  little  sadist,  she  felt  an 
unpleasant  emotion  and  wished  always  to  submit. 

Marcinowsky,  a skilled  analyst,  contends  that  sadism  is  al- 
ways hate.  He  considers  sadism  as  pleasure-toned  cruelty  be- 
cause it  is  a symbolical  love  act.* 

There  may,  however, ’be  still  other  motives  working  along 
with  these : the  wish  for  momentarily  displaying  his  power,  to 
brutally  accomplish  his  purpose,  vengeance  for  pain  endured 
and  more  complicated  motives. 

So  far  as  my  experience  goes,  the  ambivalent  instinctive  im- 
pulses of  sadism  and  masochism  appear  separately  and  rule 
* Marcinowsky,  Zbl.  II,  p.  542. 


CEDIPUS  WISH 


163 


the  whole  sexual  activity  when  the  normal  erotic  development 
is  impeded,  either  through  denial  of  affection  or  through  strong 
irritation  of  pleasure  in  cruelty  as  result  of  corporal  punish- 
ment. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  the  inhibition  of  one  of  the  am- 
bivalent instinctive  tendencies,  the  other  undergoes  an  increase. 
The  girl  who  lost  her  lover  experiences,  so  far  as  the  libido 
did  not  withdraw  to  the  father  or  Savior,  a strengthening  of 
her  friendship  for  her  girl  companions,  the  punished  and  con- 
verted tormentor  of  animals  seeks  severe  tortures  for  himself. 

May  this  reversal  not  be  easier  understood  by  assuming  that 
one  and  the  same  libido  has  come  to  mastery  in  different  direc- 
tions and  according  to  inhibitions  present,  turned  more  to  this 
or  that  activity  in  order  to  realize  its  gain  of  pleasure  ? If  we 
are  dealing  with  separate  partial  instincts,  then  I do  not  see 
how  such  a reciprocal  relation  (would  be  possible.  Rather,  the 
one  sexual  instinct  turns  from  one  activity  to  another,  as  the 
life-force  (Lebensdrang),  in  positions  where  other  outlet  is 
denied  it,  for  example  in  children  who  are  confined,  devotes 
itself  to  sexuality. 

Extraordinarily  difficult  to  answer  is  the  question  of  the 
significance  of  the  (Edipus  wish.  Freud  represents  the  view 
that  the  repression  of  the  incestuous  longing  for  the  mother 
and  the  corresponding  hatred  of  the  father  forms  the  nuclear 
complex  of  every  neurosis  in  the  male  sex.  According  to  this 
view,  every  neurotic  girl  and  woman  is  a secret  Electra. 
Against  this  hypothesis,  which  forms  the  greatest  stumbling 
block  to  the  critics,  the  criticism  has  hurled  itself  with  more 
passionate  excitement  than  calm  judgment  of  the  facts  in  the 
case,  and  one  can  only  be  amazed  at  the  ease  with  which  some 
arrive  at  conclusions  on  this  difficult  subject  who  have  never 
seriously  considered  it,  while  others  who  have  worked  on  the 
problems  for  years,  gain  a positive  opinion  only  with  the 
greatest  difficulty. 

Let  us  first  establish  the  fact  that  uncommonly  many  neurotic 
individuals  display  an  abnormal  attachment,  indeed  erotic 
attachment,  to  their  parents.  We  did  not  observe  this  state 


164 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


of  affairs  in  all  our  cases  by  a long  ways.  If  the  analysis  had 
been  pushed  deeper,  without  doubt  there  would  have  been 
found  far  more  motives  of  that  kind.  Still,  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  we  interpreted  a great  number  of  phenomena  as 
causal,  understood  their  formation,  without  finding  among 
the  determinants  the  (Edipus  impulses  or  their  feminine  coun- 
terpart. The  latter,  we  met  plainly  in  the  girl  who  was  perse- 
cuted in  her  dream  by  her  father  (67) ; more  or  less  plain 
resemblances  to  the  CEdipus  situation  we  saw  in  the  boy  who 
was  afraid  of  horses,  steam  rollers,  etc.  (68),  in  another 
person  who  wore  himself  out  in  strife  with  the  number  13  (70), 
in  the  girl  who  slandered  her  foster-father  (75),  in  another 
girl  who  fell  in  love  with  her  pastor  (82),  in  the  engaged  girl 
who  lost  her  love  on  the  stairs  (94),  in  the  other  girl  who 
could  love  her  fiance  only  when  he  was  absent  (111),  in  Grill- 
parzer  (120),  in  the  impotent  husband  (124),  in  the  youth 
who  suffered  from  pains  in  the  arm  and  leg,  asthma  and 
melancholia  (126),  in  the  melancholy  pantheist  and  masochist 
(128),  in  the  pilgrim  to  Einsiedeln  (137),  and  others.  Still 
other  examples  will  follow.  The  attachment  was  not  always 
a sexual  one.  It  was  a question,  nevertheless,  whether  the 
repression  of  incestuous  wishes  lurked  behind  these  pheno- 
mena. 

While  I was  writing  these  lines,  a man,  aged  twenty-seven, 
came  in,  who,  after  long  years  of  study  and  the  most  diverse  at- 
tempts to  obtain  a professional  position,  had  failed.  He  suf- 
fers from  tremendous  anxiety  so  that  he  no  longer  ventures 
out  among  people  and  doubts  himself.  The  anxiety  broke  out 
after  some  symptoms  which  we  will  pass  over  here,  when  he 
was  about  fifteen  years  old,  when  the  intention  of  becoming 
a dentist  appeared.  In  connection  with  this  intention,  the 
patient  related  that  he  remembered  clearly  a grievous  experi- 
ence of  his  youth.  Before  he  went  to  school,  he  found  that 
his  mother  had  an  improper  relation  with  a dentist.  He  re- 
membered this  so  vividly  that  he  considered  a falsification  of 
memory  as  excluded.  If  we  have  perceived  that  anxiety  goes 
back  to  desires,  aroused  but  not  gratified,  then  the  coincidence 


(EDIPUS  HYPOTHESIS 


165 


of  the  choice  of  profession  and  the  anxiety  is  no  longer  mysteri- 
ous. The  boy  wished,  without  knowing  it,  to  put  himself  in 
the  place  of  the  dentist.  This  explanation  of  course  will  suit 
only  him  who  has  personally  investigated  a number  of  similar 
patients. 

We  venture  now  on  the  criticism  of  the  Freudian  (Edipus 
hypothesis.  (1)  Not  every  person  who  has  an  (Edipus  com- 
plex is  neurotic.  Sophocles,  to  whom  no  one  will  ascribe 
predilection  for  psychoanalysis,  writes:  “For  many  people 
have  seen  themselves  in  dreams  joined  to  the  mother.” 
Freud  also  does  not  believe  that  the  neurotics  are  different 
in  this  respect  from  normal  individuals.  (Traumdeutung,  4th 
ed.,  196.). 

(2)  Not  every  neurotic  has  repressed  a conscious  (Edipus 
phantasy  as  a result  of  the  incest  barrier.  A proof  of  this  as- 
sertion are  the  foundlings  who,  like  Luccheni,  were  given  to 
an  asylum  immediately  after  birth. 

(3)  Not  every  erotic  attachment  to  the  parents  is  incest- 
uous. One  often  finds,  for  example,  the  wish  to  return  to 
the  mother’s  womb  (see  pages  200,  300,  and  my  article,  “Die 
Entstehung  der  kiinstlerisehen  Inspiration”  in  “Imago”  II, 
page  490  ff.).  One  finds  it,  however,  only  in  people  who  would 
withdraw  entirely  from  reality  or  would  experience  a rebirth. 
The  repressed  hate  against  the  parents  is  very  often  neither 
jealousy  nor  unrequited  love  but  the  reaction  to  improper 
education. 

(4)  Where  the  picture  of  the  neurosis  shows  plain  evidence 
of  an  (Edipus  repression,  where,  for  example,  in  dreams  and 
symptoms,  sexual  wishes  are  directed  toward  the  mother,  it 
is  questionable  whether  they  were  already  present  in  childhood 
or  only  later  when  a regressive  movement  of  the  phantasy 
to  the  infantile  stage  occurred,  newly  developed  sexual  desires 
were  displaced  backward  upon  the  same  object.  The  mother  is 
ever  the  trusted  friend  on  whom  a great  part  of  the  disposable 
love  is  concentrated.  The  transition  to  a new  object  of  love 
cannot,  according  to  the  law  of  reference,  which  is  applicable 
to  repressed  and  non-rep ressed  phantasies  (see  below  Chapter 


166 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


XVII,  proceed  differently  than  that  the  new  object  of  affection 
is  projected  upon  the  old  object,  that  is  the  mother,  whereby, 
present  sexual  desires  are  naturally  attached  to  the  early 
object.  A gross  CEdipus  phantasy  does  not  prove,  therefore, 
the  existence  of  an  infantile  repression  of  a wish  of  like  content. 

While  this  conception  applies  for  the  type  of  individual 
thrown  back  into  the  regression  (repulsion  type),  still,  we 
recognize,  on  the  other  band,  the  Freudian  explanation  for 
inhibited  persons  (retention  type)  who  have  always  been  hin- 
dered in  the  transference  of  love  to  other  objects  by  a strong 
sexual  attachment  in  the  sense  of  CEdipus.  That  such  in- 
dividuals are  often  seen,  is  not  to  be  disputed  and  the  funda- 
mental sexual  tones  are  frequently  repressed.  The  discovery 
of  these  sexual  desires  always  gives  the  patient  being  analyzed 
a great  surprise  but  one  not  to  be  controverted. 

With  these  statements,  our  subject  is  only  partially  dis- 
cussed. Much  work  is  still  to  be  performed  before  it  is  satis- 
factorily explained  from  all  sides.  In  so  doing,  we  will 
separate  the  phantasy  which  we  have  received  from  the  mouth 
of  Sophocles,  from  the  wish  for  return  to  the  mother’s  womb, 
as  it  is  expressed  for  example  by  Nicodemus  in  John’s  Gospel 
3 : 4.  The  latter  phantasy  is,  as  already  acknowledged,  often 
only  a symbolical  expression  of  a sublimated  rebirth  phantasy 
but  certainly  not  always. 

In  a word,  the  concept  of  libido  should  be  made  more  pre- 
cise. Freud  considers  it,  as  mentioned,  purely  empirically  as 
identical  with  sexual  instinct  (Drei  Abhandlungen,  page  1)  or 
sexual  pleasure  (Uber  Psychoanalyse,  page  48).  Jung  gives 
it  a metaphysical  or  asexual  meaning.  In  so  doing,  he  in- 
cludes also  empirical  quantities,  namely,  all  volition,  for  ex- 
ample, hunger,  in  the  term  libido,  as  well  as  energy  of  growth 
which  in  the  ontogenesis  causes  the  individual  to  divide  and 
germinate  {Jahrbuch  IV,  178  ff.).  Jung  specifies  thus: 
“Libido  should  be  the  name  for  the  energy  which  manifests 
itself  in  the  life  process  and  which  is  perceived  subjectively 
as  striving  and  desire”  ( Jahrbuch  V,  342).  This  libido  is 
“nothing  concrete  or  familiar,  but  rather  an  absolute  X,  a 


LIBIDO  CONCEPT 


167 


pure  hypothesis,  a picture  or  marker,  as  little  concretely  con- 
ceivable as  the  energy  of  the  physical  world”  (342). 

Thus  the  long-used  expression  “libido”  receives  an  entirely 
new  meaning.  The  consequence  was  at  first  a regretable  ter- 
minological confusion  even  among  Jung’s  nearest  adherents. 
Thus,  Schmid,  in  his  work  on  Psychology  of  Incendiarism,  uses 
the  expression  now  in  one  sense,  now  in  another  (Psycholo- 
gische  Abhandlungen,  herausg,  von  Jung,  Leipsic  and  Vienna, 
1914).  The  libido  which  is  asexual  in  itself,  is  much  like 
Freud’s  likewise  asexual  instinct  (“Triebe”),  which  only  at- 
tains sexual  character  under  the  influence  of  an  erogenous 
organ  (Drei  Abhandlungen,  30),  except  that  Freud  does  not, 
like  Jung,  invade  the  field  of  metaphysics.  Into  the  further 
criticism  of  Jung’s  conception  of  the  libido,  we  do  not  need  to 
go  here. 

Thus,  I consider  Freud’s  libido-concept  as  the  one  which 
should  be  used  exclusively  in  psychoanalytic  terminology.  On 
the  other  hand,  I include  all  expression  of  instinct  and  volition 
under  the  name  “life-force”  (Lebensdrang)  or  will-to-life 
(Lebenswillen).  This  latter  is  differentiated  according  to  the 
conditions  of  the  perpetuation  of  the  individual  and  the  race  in 
progressive  development  as  air-hunger,  instinct  to  movement, 
nutritional  instinct,  etc.  up  to  the  highest  mental  activities.* 
For  the  energies  existing  within  the  propagation  processes 
and  determining  these,  I prefer  the  expression,  propagation- 
energies,  for  the  metaphysical  tendencies  belonging  to  these 
energies,  the-  name,  propagation-will. 

From  this  basis,  we  can  also  fix  the  terms  “sexuality”  and 

* Later,  I find  that  G.  F.  Lippa  in  his  monograph,  “Das  Problem 
der  Willensfreiheit”  which  has-  just  appeared,  has  elaborated  a theory 
which  sounds  much  the  same.  For  him,  the  life-instinct  is  the  “imme- 
diate cause  of  the  actions  of  the  living  being,  which  are  executed  under 
the  influence  of  external,  present  and  past,  actually  demonstrable  or 
hidden  forces,  which,  however,  can  never  be  absolutely  derived  from 
these  forces”  (Willensfr.  79).  It  is  “an  indivisable  unity”  (79),  “a 
condition  presupposed  by  us  in  our  thinking,  which  never  submits  itself 
as  such  to  investigation,  but  betrays  itself  to  observation  only  in  the 
connection  between  the  forces  and  the  resulting  conditions.”  (85).  To 
all  of  this,  I subscribe. 


168 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


“eroticism”  more  exactly.  Freud  extended,  because  of  psy- 
chological assumptions  which  we  recognized  as  not  sure,  the 
former  term  far  beyond  the  customary  speech  usage  after  he 
had  not  done  this  at  first.  Thus,  it  happened  that  he  was 
mostly  misunderstood,  to  the  detriment  of  his  work.  In  op- 
position to  him,  I consider  it  suitable  to  use  sexuality  and  psy- 
chosexuality in  a more  original  sense,  one  better  commended 
by  the  history  of  language  and  a consideration  for  compre- 
hensibility. Under  sexuality,  we  understand  the  sum  total 
of  those  physical  and  psychical  phenomena  whch  are  related 
to  reproduction  or  the  activity  of  the  reproductive  instincts  and 
organs.  From  this  concept,  we  distinguish  eroticism  which 
we  compare  with  “love”  and  can  consider  as  characterized 
either  as  sexual  or  non-sexual. 

2.  “Censor”  and  “Resistance.” 

Wh*en  Freud,  by  the  aid  of  his  psychoanalytic  method,  began 
to  penetrate  the  unconscious  of  his  patients,  he  received  the 
impression  that  the  patients  set  up  a resistance  against  his  ef- 
forts which  he  had  to  overcome  by  his  work  * and  this  resist- 
ance, indeed,  stood  in  the  way  of  the  repressed  ideas  becoming 
conscious.  “A  new  comprehension  seemed  to  open  to  me  now, 
as  it  occurred  to  me  that  this  might  well  be  the  same  mental 
force  which  had  taken  part  in  the  originating  of  the  hysterical 
symptom  and  had  at  that  time  hindered  the  conscious  percep- 
tion of  the  pathogenic  idea.”t  As  motives  for  repression, 
he  found  the  affects  of  shame,  reproach,  mental  pain,  in  short, 
painful  contents,  so  that  the  repression  seemed  to  him  a de- 
fence. 

Thus  in  the  resistance,  we  are  dealing:  with  a hostile  defence 
against  unpleasant  ideas  and  emotions  and  therewith  also 
refusal  to  allow  these  to  return  or  be  brought  back  into  con- 
sciousness. The  result  of  this  renitence  consists  mostly  in  the 
continuance  of  those  symptoms  of  disease  which  depend  on  the 
repression.  It  is  not  the  complex  which  struggles  against  its 

* Studien  iiber  Hysterie,  p.  234. 

fP.  234. 


THE  RESISTANCE 


169 


disclosures  but  the  foreconscious  which  would  spare  conscious- 
ness a grievous  experience.  Likewise,  the  resistance  is  directed 
not  against  the  analyst  and  the  treatment  but  against  the  ren- 
dering conscious  of  the  repressed  material.  The  effect  is  really 
a holding  fast  to  the  malady.*  The  cause  of  the  resistance  is, 
according  to  Freud’s  opinion,  fear  of  the  father,  defiance  and 
distrust  toward  him.f  But  of  this,  we  need  not  speak  here. 
It  is  sufficient  proof  of  the  existence  of  the  resistance  to  point 
out  that  one  may  often  succeed  in  finding  the  motive  for  resist- 
ance analytically,  and  in  eliminating  therewith,  the  obstacles  to 
the  return  of  the  repressed  material  to  consciousness,  so  that 
the  flow  of  communications  suddenly  breaks  forth  with  force. 
We  know  for  a certainty  that  the  power  which  hinders  the  free 
speaking  out  to  the  analyst  is  simultaneously  the  jailer  of  the 
complex,  only  against  the  analyst,  special  forms  of  resistance 
appear.  If  Kronfeld  misses  the  proof  of  this  assertion, % then 
he  must  make  the  acquaintance  of  the  fact  of  the  transference 
from  his  own  contemplation  and  pass  from  the  study  of  books 
to  direct  observation. 

By  the  help  of  the  resistance,  a censoring  activity  is  now 
exercised.  Freud  even  speaks  of  “the  censor”  as  if  it  were 
a force  endowed  with  special  powers.  At  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  conscious  and  unconscious  activity,  he  assumes  a 
censor  which  admits  only  what  is  pleasing  to  it  and  represses 
the  rest.  In  sleep  or  under  other  conditions,  the  balance  of 
power  between  the  two  conditions  (consciousness  and  uncon- 
scious) changes,  so  that  the  repressed  material  can  no  longer 
be  entirely  held  back.  In  this  stage,  the  censor  is  not  entirely 
removed  but  nevertheless  changed. ||  The  sleeping  state  lowers 
the  power  of  the  intrapsychic  censor. If 

* Freud,  Tiber  Psychotherapie.  Kl.  Sehriften  I,  p.  209.  Die  Freud- 
sche  psa.  Methode.  I,  p.  221.  Tatbestandsdiagnostik  u.  Psa.  Kl. 
Sehriften  II,  p.  120.  fiber  “wilde  Psa.”  Zbl.  I,  p.  94. 

t Freud,  Die  zukiinft.  Chancen  der  Psa.  Zbl.  I,  p.  4. 

t Kronfeld,  tl.  d.  psycholog.  Theorien  Freuds  u.  verwandte  Anscliau- 
ungen  (In  book  form),  p.  104. 

II  Freud,  ilber  den  Traum.  ( Grenzfragen ) Wiesbaden,  1901,  p.  339. 

If  Traumdeutung,  p.  351. 


170 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Kovaes  uses  the  expression  “censor”  in  about  the  Freudian 
sense,  “namely,  as  the  name  for  a process  of  discrimination 
which  seeks  to  adapt  the  ideas  and  affects  to  the  conditions  of 
a cultivated  human  being  and  to  repress  those  unsuitable  to 
society.”  * On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  emphasized  that  con- 
science and  the  demands  of  society  are  not  entirely  the  same. 
An  ethically  independent  character  will  very  often  be  in  posi- 
tion to  repress  the  socially  suitable. 

Jung  originally  denied  the  censor. t Later,  he  said : “The 
censor  is  nothing  else  than  the  resistance  which  prevents  us 
from  carrying  out  a consideration  uniformly,  day  by  day,  to 
the  end.  The  censor  allows  an  idea  to.  pass  only  when  it  is 
so  clothed  that  the  dreamer  cannot  recognize  it  again.”  J 
Thereby,  the  censor  is  eliminated  as  a function.  Likewise, 
Bleuler  would  replace  it  by  the  more  general  term  of  inhibi- 
tion by  counter-striving  affective  necessities. || 

According  to  Silberer’s  view,  we  are  not  dealing  with  a con- 
tradiction between  Freud  and  Bleuler- Jung  but  only  with  the 
difference  between  the  teleological  and  causal  methods  of  con- 
sideration.If  Without  doubt,  he  is  right,  since  Freud  derives 
his  “censor”  from  the  balance  of  power  of  the  factors  of 
repression.  The  name  is  purely  a figurative  expression  and 
includes  those  functions  of  repression  which  exist  in  the 
struggle  for  the  protection  of  consciousness  from  unpleasant 
excitation.  Since  in  sleep,  the  apperception  relaxes,  the  re- 
sistance and  therewith  the  censoring  faculty  can  undergo  a 
diminution. 


3.  The  Constitution 

It  is  unjust  to  reproach  Freud  with  having  overlooked  the 
hereditary  endowment.  Of  course,  he  limits  the  convenient 
asylum  of  ignorance  of  the  hereditary  predisposition,  and 
where  the  analogy  between  parents  and  child  makes  easy  the 

* Kovaes,  Introjektion,  Projektion  und  Einfiihlung.  Zbl.  II,  p.  258. 

t Jung,  Psychologic  der  Dementia  praecox,  p.  76. 

t Jung,  L’analyse  des  Reves.  L’ann£e  psychologique,  A.  XV,  p.  163. 

||  Bleuler,  Die  Psychoanalyse  Freuds.  Jahrb  II,  p.  727. 

If  Herbert  Silberer,  fiber  die  Symbolbildung.  H.  Ill,  p.  693. 


EFFECT  OF  HEREDITY 


171 


assumption  of  an  hereditary  relation,  he  points  out  with  sharp 
criticism  the  exogenous  connections.  The  pedagogues  will  be 
only  grateful  to  him  for  this  service. 

Even  in  his  earliest  works  (1895),  the  father  of  psycho- 
analysis stated  heredity  as  a condition  of  anxiety-neurosis.* 
Gradually,  he  estimated  the  constitutional  factor  still  higher. 
In  1896,  he  found  heredity  an  indispensable  prerequisite  in 
the  majority  of  cases  of  severe  neurosis  but  not  as  determining 
the  form  of  the  malady,  t In  1905,  he  considered  the  heredi- 
tary predisposition  as  indispensable.t  In  1912,  he  defended 
himself  against  the  criticism  of  having  denied  the  importance 
of  inborn  (constitutional)  factors  because  he  emphasized  the 
infantile* impressions.  “Psychoanalysis  has  said  much  con- 
cerning the  accidental  factors  of  the  etiology,  little  concerning 
the  constitutional,  but  only  because  it  could  bring  something 
new  to  the  former,  while  concerning  the  latter,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  knew  no  more  than  was  already  known. ” ||  “The 
psychoanalytic  investigation  has  enabled  us  to  point  out  the 
neurotic  disposition  in  the  evolutionary  history  of'  the  libido 
and  to- trace  this  disposition  in  its  active  factors  back  to  inborn 
varieties  of  the  psychosexual  constitution  and  influences  of 
the  outer  world  experienced  in  early  childhood.  ’ ’ If  Among  the 
inborn  variations  of  the  sexual  constitution,  he  conceives  “a 
preponderance  of  this  or  that  one  of  the  manifold  sources  of 
sexual  excitement.  ” § At  all  events,  lues  in  the  father 
strongly  predisposes  to  neurosis.** 

Jung  lays  the  emphasis  on  the  more  or  less  developed  ability 
to  continue  the  course  of  development  prescribed  by  the  inner 
peculiarity  and  outer  relations,  in  spite  of  the  sacrifice  de- 
manded by  it. 

* Freud,  Zur  Kritik  der  “Angstneurose.”  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  109  ff. 

t Freud,  L’h6redite  et  l’etiologie  des  n6vroses.  Kl.  Selir.  I,  p.  139. 
Compare  p.  199. 

t Freud,  Bruchstiick  einer  Hysterie- Analyse.  Kl.  Schr.  II,  p.  14. 

||  Freud,  Zur  Dynamik  der  tlbertragung.  Zbl.  II,  p.  167. 

II  Freud,  uber  neurot.  Erkrankungstypen.  Zbl.  II,  p.  297. 

§ Freud,  Drei  Abb.  p.  80. 

**  Same. 


172 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Adler  considers  the  inferiority  of  an  organ  as  constitutional 
cause  of  the  neurosis : ‘ ‘ The  digestive  apparatus,  the  respiratory 
organs,  the  heart,  the  skin,  the  sexual  apparatus,  the  motor 
organs,  the  sense  organs  and  the  pain  paths  become  thrown 
into  excitement  according  to  their  fitness  for  the  expression  of 
the  wish  for  power,  and  show  the  forms  of  hostile,  aggressive 
attack  or  of  quiescence  and  of  flight,  inhibition  of  aggression, 
both  in  harmony  with  the  “vital  line”  of  the  patient,  with  his 
secret  life  plan.  To  give  in  brief  some  examples  of  organ 
dialect:  Scorn  can  come  to  expression  by  the  refusal  of  nor- 
mal functions,  envy  and  desire  by  pain,  ambition  by  sleepless- 
ness, thirst  for  power  by  oversensitiveness,  by  anxiety  and  by 
organic  nervous  maladies.”  * To  put  it  differently,  from  the 
experience  of  an  inferior  organ,  there  follows  a feeling  of 
inferiority  which  must  be  removed  by  aggressive  endeavor. 
From  this  attitude,  follow  forced  strivings  toward  strengthen- 
ing of  the  value  of  the  personality  and  from  these  forced  efforts, 
the  neurosis  proceeds.  We  have  discussed  this  theory  and  its 
exaggeration  by  Adler  on  page  139. 

* Adler,  Organdialekt.,  Monatsh.  f.  Pad.  u.  Schulreform  IV  Year, 
(1912),  p.  325. 


SECTION  2 


THE  RETROGRESSIONS  OF  THE  REPRES- 
SION, FIXATION  AND  REPULSION 

(THE  MANIFESTATIONS) 

CHAPTER  IX 

THE  PHYSICAL  MANIFESTATIONS 
1.  Symptoms 

The  repression  does  not  occasion  the  submergence  below 
the  threshold  of  consciousness  of  an  idea  actually  thought  but 
rather  the  restriction  of  an  instinct  in  a certain  place,  so  that 
as  a result  of  this  restriction,  certain  ideas  become  incapable 
of  coming  into  consciousness  and  in  addition,  the  further  nor- 
mal development  of  that  instinct  is  inhibited  within  a certain 
domain.  Thus  far,  we  speak  of  a fixation  of  instinct. 

There  is,  however,  no  absolute  quiescence  of  the  instincts. 
If  normal  activity  is  denied  them,  they  grow  in  an  abnormal 
direction.  Thus,  by  the  repression  and  fixation,  the  instincts 
are  deflected  into  paths  deviating  from  the  original  direction 
and  driven  to  new  creations.  We  call  these  new  formations, 
manifestations. 

Under  manifestations,  I understand  all  phenomena  which 
.psychoanalysis  shows  to  be  direct  effects  of  the  repressed  and 
fixed  unconscious. 

The  fact  that  repression  shows  itself  in  a physical  symptom, 
Breuer  ana  Freud  expressed  in  the  formula : ‘‘The  excitation 
proceeding  from  the  affective  idea  becomes  converted  into  a 
physical  phenomenon.”  * Breuer ’s  supposition  that  the  foun- 

* Studien  iiber  Hysterie,  p.  180. 

173 


174 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


dation  and  condition  of  hysteria  may  be  the  existence  of  hyp- 
noidal  (sleeplike)  states,*  was  soon  given  up  by  Freud.  In 
place  of  these  states,  there  were  other  conditions  which  we  have 
already  brought  to  the  reader’s  attention.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  riddle,  why  psychic  processes  can  occasion  physical  ones, 
remains  unsolved.  The  name  “conversion”  presupposes  a 
transformation  of  psychic  energy  into  physical  energy,  in  which 
we,  the  followers  of  psychophysical  parallelism,  cannot  believe. 
The  thing  itself  is  not  a whit  more  enigmatical  than  the  rela- 
tionship between  processes  of  will  and  action.  In  addition, 
I call  attention  to  the  fact  that  all  pathological  physical  reac- 
tions to  mental  impressions  are  denoted  as  hysterical. 

Some  physicians  gave  themselves  endless  trouble  to  collect 
and  describe  the  symptoms  of  hysteria.  Naturally,  it  is  im- 
possible to  conceive  of  completeness  in  this  symptomatology 
and  further,  nothing  would  be  gained  by  it.  The  same  signs 
of  illness  may  owe  their  origin  to  the  most  diverse  mental  con- 
flicts. We  educators  are  primarily  interested  only  in  the  most 
important  of  the  external  characteristics  but  on  the  other 
hand,  because  of  our  profession,  we  are  very  eager  to  recognize 
the  mental  backgound.  It  should  be  remembered  that  we 
trouble  ourselves  concerning  the  bodily  injuries  only  because 
they  form  the  tell-tale  signal  of  a mental  complication  which 
is  of  highest  importance  for  the  utilization  of  the  intellectual, 
esthetic,  religious  and  ethical  powers  and  for  the  development 
of  the  whole  character  and  because  we  cannot  possibly  solve 
the  educational  problem  without  also  eliminating  at  the  same 
time  the  physical  suffering. 

I shall  refer  first  to  some  of  the  physical  marks  of  hysteria 
which  we  have  recognized  so  far.  We  will  group  them  as 
motor,  vasomotor  and  sensory  phenomena  and  distinguish  func- 
tional increase  and  decrease. 

A.  Motor  Phenomena : 

(a)  Increased:  clucking  (33),  twitching  in  the  cheeks  (41), 
asthmatic  dyspnea  (68),  tic  of  eyelid  (74),  convulsions  in  the 
arm  (123). 

* Studien  iiber  Hysterie,  p.  9. 


PHYSICAL  HYSTERICAL  SYMPTOMS  175 


(b)  Decreased:  dumbness,  astasia  (31),  stuttering  (84), 
writer’s  cramp  (88),  paralysis  (90). 

B.  Vasomotor  Symptoms: 

Swollen  lips  (32),  skin  eruption  (34).  These  examples 
contain  only  a small  part  of  my  observations. 

C.  Sensory  Symptoms: 

(a)  Hyperesthesias:  Migraine  with  feeling  of  hair  being 
pulled  out  (32),  itching  of  scalp  (34),  temporal  migraine 
(35),  two  crowns  of  thorns  (36),  visions  (angel,  devil, 
Schleiermacher)  (37),  buzzing  in  the  ear  (41),  innervations 
in  the  arm  (44),  tactile  hallucinations  in  the  hands  and  feet 
(81),  neuralgia  (98),  pains  in  the  arm,  leg  and  back  (126), 
in  the  shoulder  (132),  in  stomach  (142). 

(b)  Hypesthesias : Dimness  of  vision  (31),  deafness 
(34). 

Since  the  sensory  deficiencies  and  vasomotor  symptoms  were 
shown  somewhat  scantily,  I shall  give  some  further  illustra- 
tions : 

A patient  of  twenty-two  years,  who  will  come  before  us 
often  again — we  have  already  made  his  acquaintance  as  an 
asthmatic  (68) — has  suffered  for  some  years  from  severe 
near-sightedness,  although  the  physicians  could  find  no  my- 
opia. A slight  clouding  of  the  cornea  bears  no  relation  to  the 
visual  defect  as  will  soon  show.  The  youth  greatly  fears 
becoming  totally  blind.  Asked  concerning  the  outbreak  of 
the  trouble,  the  patient  recalled  that  he  had  first  noticed  the 
disturbance  when  he  mistook  an  approaching  trolley  car  with 
two  signal  targets  for  two  men.  (We  recall  here  that  the 
steam  roller  represented  the  father  panting  from  coitus.) 
When  the  latter  had  discovered  from  traces  in  the  closet  the 
masturbation  of  his  son,  he  had  whipped  him  in  great  wrath 
and  shouted  at  him:  “You  will  become  blind,  you  already 
have  closed  eyes,  you  pig!”  The  threat  was  occasionally  re- 
peated. Soon  thereafter,  the  visual  power  diminished  and 
the  compulsion  to  look  at  himself  continually  in  the  mirror 
began,  along  with  many  other  symptoms.  Immediately  after 
the  disclosure  of  this  fact,  the  young  man,  wrho  had  previously 


176 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


worn  strong  and  still  stronger  eyeglasses,  read  small  print  at 
a distance  of  one  meter  without  lenses  and  some  days  later, 
laid  aside  the  glasses  entirely. 

A man  of  about  forty  complained  to  me  that  for  some  time 
he  had  entirely  lost  the  sensation  in  one  big  toe.  His  wife  had 
previously  been  under  my  pastoral  care  suffering  with  distaste 
for  life  and  irritability.  I knew  therefore  that  her  last  par- 
turition had  been  accompanied  by  danger  to  her  life  and  that 
she  resisted  sexual  intercourse.  I had  referred  her  in  this 
matter  to  the  family  doctor  who  assured  her  that  there  was 
no  certain  means  of  preventing  conception  except  refraining 
from  intercourse.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  was  not  easy 
to  cure  the  wife  by  way  of  sublimation  (see  below)  and  at  the 
same  time,  her  husband  was  importunate.  What  kind  of  a 
meaning  the  anesthesia  of  the  toe  had  is  at  once  clear  to  us 
if  we  remember  its  symbolical  significance : Phidias  engraved 
the  name  of  Phryne  on  the  great  toe  of  Zeus.*  The  anesthesia 
of  the  toe  symbolized  masculine  frigidity  and  served  also  for 
the  subliminal  refusal  of  this.  That  atrophy  of  the  spinal 
cord  was  not  present  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  for  more  than 
three  years  sensation  in  the  toe  has  been  present  again ; other, 
milder  nervous  phenomena  predominate.  I advised  the  man 
to  consult  a neurologist  but  he  did  not  take  my  advice.  An 
analysis  was  not  performed. 

That  the  unconscious  manifests  itself  in  physical  expressions 
which  are  neither  connected  with  familiar  motor  nor  with 
sensory  nerve  functions,  we  know  from  the  history  of  religion 
and  hypnosis.  One  may  recall  the  monks  with  stigmata 
(Francis  of  Assisi)  and  nuns  with  bloody  sweat.  Analogous 
phenomena  have  been  brought  about  by  hypnotism.!  Hys- 

* Compare  in  this  connection,  Jung,  Wandlungen  u.  Symbole  der 
Libido.  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  166.  L.  Binswanger,  Analyse  einer  hyster. 
Phobie.  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  302  ff.  (Folk-psychological  references  in  Aigre- 
mont,  Fuss-  und  Schuhsymbolik  und  -erotik,  Leipzig,  1909;  the  phallic 
significance  of  the  foot  is  here  demonstrated  without  analysis,  likewise 
by  Kleinpaul,  Das  Leben  der  Sprache,  Vol.  II,  p.  490,  cited  by  Stekel, 
Die  Sprache  des  Traumes,  Wiesbaden  1911,  7. 

t Forel,  Hypnotismus,  p.  27. 


HYSTERICAL  SYMPTOMS 


177 


teria,  nevertheless,  proceeds  gradually  beyond  hypnotic  vaso- 
motor symptoms. 

The  girl  with  swollen  lips  (32)  did  the  following  trick: 
informed  concerning  the  nature  of  her  comical  symptom,  she 
resolutely  undertook  the  treatment  of  her  mother  one  day. 
According  to  her  report,  her  mother  recalled  that  she  had  suf- 
fered since  her  eighteenth  year  from  a painful  swelling  on  the 
tongue  which  had  resisted  all  medical  treatment,  as  also  had 
been  the  ease  for  a long  time  with  her  seventeen-year-old  son. 
Now  came  the  question  whether  this  trouble  might  not  perhaps 
be  of  hysterical  nature.  The  mother  reported  that  in  her  time, 
one  rather  thought  of  an  infection,  still  it  could  scarcely  have 
been  such.  Shortly  before  the  onset  of  the  swelling,  a friend 
of  her  brother,  who  was  suffering  from  the  same  trouble,  had 
been  in  he?  house,  yet  he  had  neither  touched  with  his  tongue 
an  eating  instrument  nor  any  other  object.  Triumphantly, 
the  daughter,  who  was  accustomed  to  use  a very  unceremonious 
tone,  called  out:  “Aha!  You  have  identified  yourself  with 
the  young  man,  you  were  in  love  with  him!”  Now,  this 
method  of  treatment  was  not  even  analytically  correct.  Still, 
it  sufficed  to  dislodge  the  old  trouble  and  the  son  promptly 
followed  the  example  of  his  mother  by  eating.* 

Besides  undoubted  “automatic”  signs,  there  are  some  in 
which  a part  of  the  unconscious  motive  passes  over  into  con- 
sciousness so  that  one  might  speak  of  semi-automatisms  if  the 
analysis  had  not  displaced  that  term  which  cuts  the  causal 
connections  in  the  wrong  place. 

A girl  of  thirteen  and  one  half  years  was  attacked  with 
trembling.  Sixteen  months  later,  she  entered  one  of  my 
classes  with  increased  symptoms.  She  was  unable  to  give  any- 
one her  hand  and  touched  only  the  outermost  finger-tips  to 
draw  them  back  very  quickly.  She  could  walk  only  in  dancing 
steps,  with  hands  raised,  as  if  she  were  in  a minuet.  Street 
urchins  often  imitated  her  in  derision.  In  one  of  her  first 

* The  young  man  who  exerts  himself  against  the  analysis,  is  also  a 
clever  imitator.  When  his  sister  injured  her  foot,  he  awoke  the  fol- 
lowing night  with  severe  pain  in  his  foot. 


178 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


years  of  life,  the  girl  had  lost  her  father  and  acquired  a step- 
father whom  she  hated  from  her  earliest  days  because  of  his 
severity.  An  uncle  struck  her  on  the  back  when  she  was  four 
years  old.  When  seven  years  of  age,  she  had  anxiety-dreams 
without  telling  of  what  she  was  afraid.  In  school,  she  was 
laughed  at  as  a foreigner  because  of  her  speech,  to  which  she 
reacted  with  immeasurable  hate.  Further  she  detested  her 
mother.  Some  months  before  the  outbreak  of  the  tremors,  she 
dreamed  that  as  she  was  standing  in  a room,  a knife  was  thrown 
at  her  through  the  open  door  by  a workman.  The  man  who 
did  this,  strongly  resembled  the  wicked  uncle  who  had  chastised 
her  and  thereby  plainly  awakened  sexual  emotions.  As  every 
analyst  knows  from  a mass  of  proof,  knife  and  door  signify 
masculine  and  feminine  symbols  (see  below  Chapter  XI). 
Thus  the  girl  wished  a sexual  attack  from  the  uncle  who  stood 
for  the  stepfather.  Details  of  the  dream,  she  refused  to  give. 
The  nervous  malady  broke  out  when  the  hysterical  girl  had  got 
into  strife  with  her  only  friend  and  all  the  girls  expressed  their 
displeasure  in  strong  form.  Two  weeks  after  the  trembling 
which  accompanied  the  wrath  phantasy,  the  dancing  appeared. 
At  that  time,  the  little  one  received  a visit  from  a brother,  ten 
years  older,  who  formed  a positive  (beloved)  father  substitute. 
The  brother  reported  that  his  child  had  St.  Vitus’  dance,  per- 
haps his  sister  might  have  it  also.  The  hysterical  girl  imagined 
the  chorea  as  a real  dance.  She  had  wished  for  a long  time 
to  be  able  to  dance.  From  the  newspaper,  she  was  familiar 
with  the  positions  in  the  minuet  dance  which  she  had  assumed. 
During  the  dancing,  she  was  afraid  of  falling. 

Striking  was  the  love  of  finery  of  the  homely  girl,  as  well 
as  her  longing  for  caresses  which  she  boldly  sought  for. 

The  meaning  and  connection  of  the  symptoms  are  fairly 
clear:  The  girl  did  not  know  how  to  bring  her  love  intelli- 
gently into  use,  since  she  had  fallen  out  with  parents  and  play- 
mates, had  to  renounce  the  love  of  her  married  brother  and  in 
her  love-making  was  too  little  successful.  After  the  damming 
up  of  the  homoerotic  instinctive  activity,  a physical  symptom 
appeared  which  was  directed  .into'  a new  path  by  further  de- 


PHYSICAL  MANIFEST: ATIONS  179 

terminants.  The  girl  identified  herself  with  the  brother’s 
child  which  had  St.  Vitus’  dance;  the  brother,  she  raised  to 
father  and  realized  in  hysterical  manner  her  wish  to  dance. 
The  position  of  her  hands  expressed  however,  two  other  ten- 
dencies: the  intention  of  protecting  herself  from  falling  (mor- 
ally) and  the  resistance  against  shaking  hands.  The  wishes 
to  fall  and  to  be  loved  were  repressed. 

The  analysis  was  not  carried  to  completion  since  the  girl 
plainly  concealed  energetically  a part  of  her  secrets;  she  en- 
tered the  class  of  a minister  who  was  making  arrangements  to 
apply  psychoanalysis  in  a pastoral  way.  So  far  as  I was  con- 
cerned, I succeeded  in  stopping  the  dancing.  The  hatred  of 
men  and  its  symbol,  the  refusal  to  shake  hands,  persisted.  The 
analysis  did  not  come  to  pass,  unfortunately,  although  the  girl 
was  earnestly  urged  thereto.  A half  year  later,  I saw  the 
girl  strolling  with  a peasant  at  a late  hour  under  suspicious 
circumstances.  What  has  become  of  the  young  coquette,  I 
do  not  know,  as  she  went  away.  I fear  she  will  be  dragged 
down  to  the  depths  by  her  untrained  sensuality. 

As  foundation  for  physical  manifestations,  we  often  recog- 
nize a certain  bodily  weakness  as  for  example  in  the  following 
case : 

A girl  of  nineteen  has  suffered  for  three  years  with  some 
remissions,  for  one  and  one  half  years  constantly,  from  a very 
severe,  barking  cough,  against  which  the  physicians  can  ac- 
complish nothing.  Upon  questioning,  I learned  the  following: 
A year  after  the  beginning  of  her  illness,  the  girl  left  her  birth- 
place and  moved  into  a pension  where  she  was  hospitably  re- 
ceived. Soon,  the  cough  ceased,  to  recur  with  rather  lessened 
force  when  two  other  girls  entered  and  took  the  lead  as  fa- 
vorites. After  the  rivals  had  gone,  the  cough  also  disappeared 
completely.  After  a short  time  came  the  death  of  her  dearest 
relative,  the  only  one  by  whom  she  felt  herself  understood. 
From  that  time  till  the  analysis,  the  cough  dominated;  the 
analysis  eliminated  the  cough  in  two  sessions  and  in  some 
further  ones,  the  ethical  inhibition  as  well.  The  girl  had  a 
number  of  painful  experiences  and  phantasies  which  concerned 


180 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


the  parents,  had  repressed  these  and  was  prejudiced  by  the 
mood  so  created.  The  strongest  impression  had  been  made 
by  the  idea  that  in  her  twelfth  year,  a harmless  love  had  been 
rudely  destroyed.  Even  at  that  time,  she  said:  “Father  and 
mother  do  not  love  me,  they  wish  I were  dead.  ’ ’ Four  years 
later,  she  suffered  from  an  acute  bronchitis  with  much  cough. 
As  no  one  sent  her  to  the  physician  or  to  bed,  she  thought  she 
possessed  absolute  proof  that  her  death  was  wished  for  and 
revelled  in  the  idea  that  it  would  be  discovered  too  late  how 
much  she  had  been  misunderstood.  Whenever  the  parent- 
complex  ruled,  the  coughing  broke  out,  as  if  to  say:  “It  is 
again  as  at  that  time  when  I was  seriously  ill  and  no  one 
bothered  about  me.”  The  masochistic  death-wish  came  to  ex- 
pression. Now  we  understand  also  why  the  cough,  which  went 
parallel  to  the  attitude  toward  the  environment,  ceased  under 
friendly  treatment  and  appeared  when  she  was  put  in  the 
background. 

How  the  denial  of  the  suicidal  thoughts  was  very  prettily 
unmasked  by  the  association-experiment,  I will  show  later. 

The  patient  at  first  resisted  the  treatment  with  the  hypo- 
critical pretext  that  she  was  being  punished  by  God,  in  reality, 
however,  because  she  would  not  renounce  her  hysterical  gain 
of  pleasure  and  particularly  the  hatred  of  her  parents.  I 
showed  her  this  condition  of  affairs  and  her  foolishness  and 
after  a few  consultations  attained  not  only  the  stopping  of 
the  cough  but  also  a favorable  change  in  her  ethical  relation. 

This  observation  teaches  us  that  a real  organic  disease  can 
be  taken  over  by  the  unconscious  and  continued  on  its  own 
account.*  Much  more  often,  nevertheless,  the  reverse  takes 
place,  an  illness  which  is  apparently  of  undoubted  organic 
origin,  is  traced  back  to  nothing  but  mental  causes.  On  this 
point,  the  physicians  may  discuss  more  profitably.  I mention 
only  a very  frequent  occurrence  which  happens  to  us  educa- 
tors. 

Often,  we  have  to  deal  with  pupils  who  suffer  from  fatigue. 

* We  also  saw  organic  inferiority  as  a disposing  cause  of  hysteria 
on  page  96. 


CONVULSIVE  LAUGHTER  AND  WEEPING  181 


The  physician  is  accustomed  to  allow  them  to  leave  school  and 
sends  them  to  the  country,  from  which  they  return,  sometimes 
improved  and  sometimes  unimproved.  In  the  process,  much 
time  is  lost  and  the  exhaustion  soon  returns.  How  many  a 
career  has  been  cruelly  blasted  as  a result ! Physicians  trained 
in  psychoanalysis  have  noted  that  a great  part  of  the  tired 
pupils  suffer  only  from  mental  conflicts.  I,  too,  have  obtained 
such  results. 

A talented  girl  of  sixteen  years,  from  North  Germany,  suf- 
fered for  a year  and  a half  from  great  lassitude  and  for  the 
same  length  of  time  from  convulsive  laughter  and  weeping. 
It  was  also  impossible  for  her  to  have  wool  or  silk  touch  her. 
Previously  she  had  suffered  from  somnambulism:  she  some- 
times twisted  her  underclothes  into  cords  and  laid  them  on 
the  floor. 

The  first  convulsion  came  when  one  of  her  brothers  snatched 
away  some  little  thing  which  she  had  wanted  to  eat.  The  affect 
surprised  and  provoked  the  girl  so  much  the  more  since  she  was 
not  at  all  selfish.  Another  time,  she  asked  her  neighbor  during 
the  study-hour  to  make  a D in  round  script.  The  other  wrote 
instead  of  that,  ‘ ‘ Du,  ’ ’ whereupon  the  convulsion  with  laughter 
set  in  and  then  passed  into  weeping.  The  analysis  revealed  at 
first  that  the  fear  was  present  that  she  would  be  written 
blockhead  (“Dummkopf”)  or  something  similar.  The  very 
next  session  elucidated  the  anxiety : When  a small  child,  our 
patient  was  called  “Dummerchen”  (little  stupid)  because  she 
allowed  everything  to  be  taken  from  her  without  resistance  by 
her  brother,  two  years  older  than  herself.  The  nickname  be- 
came indeed  her  constant  name.  The  intelligent  little  person 
did  not  seem  to  know  stronger  affects  at  all,  at  least  she  yielded 
quietly  to  being  plundered.  That  in  reality,  powerful  emo- 
tions were  present  in  the  depths,  the  future  made  plain.  Most 
striking  was  the  absence  of  emotional  reaction  when  the  little 
brother  perishod:  he  snatched  an  object  from  the  hand  of 
his  three  year  old  sister  in  the  laundry  and  in  so  doing, 
stumbled  into  a tub  of  hot  water.  Eight  days  later,  our 
patient  stood  beside  her  brother’s  corpse  without  showing 


182 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


inner  excitement.  The  pantomime  carried  out  in  somnam- 
bulism repeated  the  fateful  scene  under  motives  which  we  can 
now  give  only  hypothetically:  The  girl  suffered  still  from 
the  feeling  of  being  slighted,  which,  according  to  information 
furnished  by  her  mother,  had  actually  taken  place  in  the  early 
years  of  childhood,  and  repressed  the  wish  arising  from  the 
unconscious  that  again,  an  event  like  that  earlier  one  might 
remove  her  rival.  Thereby,  during  all  the  years,  the  memory 
of  the  catastrophe  was  blotted  out.  Her  mother’s  narrative 
first  refreshed  her  memory  but  not  for  the  tragic  affair,  merely 
for  the  harmless  play  which  had  taken  place  between  them 
shortly  before. 

The  analysis  of  the  touching-phobia,  we  will  describe  later. 
Its  result  was  as  follows:  The  patient  saw  unconsciously  in 
every  bit  of  woolen  underwear,  the  underclothing  of  the 
scalded  little  brother,  in  every  silken  stuff,  the  garment  worn 
by  an  old  lady  who  was  present  at  the  funeral.  The  feeling  of 
inferiority  was  repeatedly  satisfied  in  sadistic  wishes. 

The  life  of  the  well  endowed  girl  was  plainly  centered  about 
the  overcoming  of  the  inferiority,  in  which  the  strong  pressure 
by  feelings  of  helplessness  was  inhibited.  Her  relations  to- 
ward the  members  of  her  family  were  entirely  correct.  As 
consciousness  of  helplessness,  however,  allowed  no  protest  to 
come  forward  when  she  was  slighted,  there  constantly  resulted 
the  regression  to  the  neurosis  and  her  vindictive  wrath.  The 
convulsions  expressed  joy  in  injury  and  anger  which  alter- 
nated that  each  might  break  out  so  much  the  more  violently. 
I call  this  phenomenon,  which  is  often  found  in  hysteria,  the 
polarization  of  antagonistic  instinctive  tendencies.* 

The  lassitude  decreased,  like  all  the  other  symptoms,  after 
a few  hours  of  analysis.  It  was  a result  of  the  severe,  dimly 
recognized  mental  struggle  and  probably  might  also  console 
when  the  results  did  not  fully  correspond  to  the  ambitious 
efforts. t After  my  pedagogic  efforts,  the  strikingly  monoto- 

* Compare  my  article:  Hvsterie  und  Mystik  bei  Marg.  Ebner  (1291- 
1351).  Zbl.  I,  p.  484. 

f For  another  example  of  psychogenic  fatigue,  see  below,  page  197. 


EXTERNAL  AND  INTERNAL  ASSOCIATIONS  183 


nous,  poor-in-affect  speech  changed  remarkably.  The  young 
girl  realized  much  better  how  to  express  herself  and  took  an 
honorable  place  in  her  class.  In  brief,  she  defended  her  rights 
courageously.  Her  attitude  toward  life  became  excellent. 

2.  The  External  and  Internal  Associations  in  the 
Manifestation  Process 

The  representation  of  the  physical  hysterical  symptom  pro- 
ceeds along  two  paths,  namely,  by  that  of  the  inner  or  outer 
association  or  by  both  together.  Often,  the  manifestation  re- 
produces simply  one  scene,  the  renewing  of  which  by  a present 
experience,  is  rendered  desirable.  A recent  occasion  repro- 
duces a similar  previous  occurrence  which  makes  the  present 
situation  appear  in  consoling  light  or  else  contains  a relation 
to  the  present.  Now  an  earlier  situation  is  revived,  now  it  is 
expressed  by  this:  “It  is  again  as  at  that  time,  when  the 
event,  which  comes  to  expression  here,  occurred,”  the  present 
recreates  from  the  past,  courage,  guidance  and  hope  for  the 
future.  In  this  process,  the  only  absolute  essential  is  that  the 
connection  between  manifestation  and  complex  may  not  become 
conscious.  If  this  should  happen,  then  the  secret  which  oc- 
casioned the  disguise,  would  be  disclosed.  Naturally,  only  a 
small  group  of  characteristics  from  an  earlier  event  can  be 
reproduced. 

Such  reproduction-symptoms  are  exceedingly  frequent. 
We  have  already  found  them  many  times  (for  example  on 
pages  32,  44,  86) . I will  add  a few  other  cases : 

The  girl  mentioned  on  page  179,  who  allowed  the  complex 
to  come  to  expression  through  the  secret  speech  of  the  cough, 
suffered,  after  the  cure  of  her  violent  barking,  as  for  years 
before,  from  migraine  which  she  would  not  place  at  my  dis- 
posal. Finally,  she  concluded  to  sacrifice  the  private  cult 
which  she  practiced  at  the  altar  of  hysteria.  Questioned  con- 
cerning the  first  appearance  of  the  trouble,  she  said  that  at 
the  time  of  the  first  migraine,  she  had  menstruated  for  the 
first  time,  but  because  her  father,  mother  and  some  brothers 
and  sisters  were  confined  to  bed  with  influenza,  she  had  nursed 


184« 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


her  family  in  spite  of  the  violent  headache,  while  other  girls 
were  granted  rest  and  protection  under  these  circumstances. 
At  present,  the  girl  suffers  under  the  often  heard  reproach 
that  she  is  lazy  and  does  nothing  for  her  family.  This  unjust 
accusation,  however,  always  produces  migraine.  In  this  way, 
the  patient  plainly  revives  that  period  during  which  she  dis- 
tinguished herself  by  heroic  self-sacrifice  and  extraordinary 
industry,  while  the  cough  illustrates  the  meanness  of  her 
parents  during  the  illness  of  their  daughter.  Both  symptoms 
are,  therefore,  as  is  constantly  the  case,  internally  united. 
From  the  hour  of  this  none-too-deep  exploration,  the  headache 
remained  absent. 

A pupil  of  seventeen  years,  brought  to  my  pastoral  treat- 
ment by  melancholia,  blushed  every  moment  or  so,  on  the  left 
half  of  his  face,  especially  his  ear.  This  phenomenon  reminded 
him  of  a box  on  the  ear  which  he  had  received  from  his  father, 
the  last  time,  a half  year  previously.  At  that  time,  he  wished 
to  run  away  from  the  parental  roof  and  would  have  done  so  if 
his  father  had  not  turned  him  back.  In  the  analysis,  he  now 
substituted  me  in  the  role  of  father,  for  reasons  of  transference 
to  be  discussed  below.  My  command  to  speak  corresponded  to 
the  earlier  efforts  of  the  father  to  get  a secret  from  his  son. 
The  blushing  corresponded  to  the  wish  that  I,  too,  would  be 
rough  like  the  father,  then  the  patient  might  run  away  from 
me  or  humiliate  me.  The  symptom  (erythromania)  disap- 
peared at  once. 

An  hysterical  man  of  twenty-two  years  suffered  among  other 
things  from  prickling  sensations  in  the  right  half  of  the  face. 
One  proceeded  from  the  teeth  perpendicularly  upwards,  the 
other  from  the  temple  horizontally  toward  the  parietal  region. 
Both  sensations  go  back  to  brutal  punishment  by  the  father. 
A band  about  a hand’s  breadth  wide  presses  on  the  patient’s 
neck  and  back  after  the  midday  meal.  The  jugulars  swell  and 
threaten  to  burst.  When  the  youth  was  still  a child,  the  father 
compelled  him  to  rest  on  a couch  after  meals,  shoved  a cushion 
under  his  neck  and  loin  regions  and  bent  the  head  violently 
backward.  In  the  new  formations,  the  patient  continually 


SYMBOLICAL  REPRESENTATION 


185 


seeks  new  material  for  sweet  phantasies  of  revenge  and  yet 
wishes  at  the  same  time  to  experience  the  father’s  affection. 
These  phenomena  also  disappeared  at  the  moment  of  the 
analysis. 

Frequently,  however,  the  symptom  forms,  not  a mere  repro- 
duction, but  a new  formation  and  indeed  a symbolical  repre- 
sentation of  an  idea.  Here,  an  inner  association  between  re- 
pressed material  and  symptom  takes  place.  Examples  of  this, 
we  have  already  met  in  great  numbers.  I refer  to  the  dumb- 
ness, the  hanging  by  a thread  (31),  the  clucking  (33),  the 
imaginary  piece  of  coal  in  the  eye  (75),  the  crown  of  thorns 
(36),  the  anesthetic  toe  (176),  etc. 

Being  partial  to  pedagogic  material,  I shall  describe  a few 
more  cases  which  will  show  external  and  internal  psychological 
productions  of  hysteria. 

The  teacher  who  had  sent  me  his  pupil  afflicted  with  paralyses 
and  convulsions  (86),  consulted  me  for  a far  more  severe 
case.  The  twelve  year  old  girl,  who  was  the  patient,  had  suf- 
fered now  for  the  third  time,  from  phenomena  which  the  physi- 
cian pronounced  St.  Vitus  ’ dance  (chorea) . When  seven  years 
old,  the  child  had  a disturbance  of  writing,  her  hand  began  to 
tremble,  soon  the  foot  became  restless,  and  with  her  hands, 
she  pulled  and  tugged  at  the  persons  who  would  hold  her.  In 
her  tenth  year,  the  trouble  which  had  disappeared  after  some 
weeks,  returned  in  greater  violence.  The  tongue  could  no 
longer  be  moved.  A course  of  baths  brought  improvement, 
still  the  speech  and  writing  remained  greatly  inhibited.  A 
full  year,  school  had  to  be  given  up.  Five  weeks  ago,  came 
the  third  and  by  far  most  severe  outbreak.  The  well  developed, 
but  strikingly  pale  child  displayed  a far-reaching  hysteria. 
Without  cessation,  she  swung  the  distorted  arms,  of  which, 
the  right  had  become  weak,  the  upper  body  turned  hither  and 
thither,  the  knees  often  gave  way,  the  face  continually  made 
grimaces:  the  mouth  drew  apart,  saliva  was  automatically 
forced  between  the  teeth,  the  eyes  winked  abnormally  often, 
the  nose  and  brow  were  wrinkled.  If  the  child  wished  to 
grasp  an  object,  she  invariably  struck  beside  it.  Spoons,  pens, 


186 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


playthings,  etc.,  were  flung  away ; writing  was  not  to  be  thought 
of.  Drinking  from  a cup  was  also  impossible.  The  tongue 
was  often  so  paralyzed  that  no  word  could  be  spoken.  Con- 
vulsive laughter  and  weeping  frequently  appeared. 

In  addition,  there  were  mental  anomalies,  of  which,  I must 
mention  at  least  the  severe  anxiety  which  had  for  years  com- 
pelled her  to  look  under  the  bed. 

It  is  not  possible  to  give  in  brief  form  more  than  the  most 
important  determinants  of  such  a wide-spread  hysteria.  I 
could  not  find  them  all,  since  the  child,  although  I avoided 
suggestion  as  much  as  possible  in  the  interest  of  a thorough 
treatment,  had  lost  all  symptoms  after  eight  sessions.  Sueh 
an  outcome  is  very  pleasant  for  the  patient ; the  analyst  who 
would  like  to  throw  light  on  all  peculiarities  feels  unsatisfied, 
however,  since  he  can  explain  many  traits  only  ex  analogia. 

The  first  attack,  which  was  essentially  in  the  form  of  writer’s 
cramp,  was  little  elucidated : the  child  wrote  poorly.  At  home, 
she  excused  herself  by  saying  that  her  neighbor  constantly 
pulled  at  her  arm.  Before  she  entered  school,  she  had  long 
had  anxiety,  with  which  she  had  long  been  inoculated.  Con- 
siderable sexual  traumata  had  preceded.  The  disturbance  of 
writing  corresponded  every  time  to  a strong  wish  to  be  freed 
from  school  and  to  be  excused  for  bad  penmanship. 

The  second  outbreak  resulted  again  in  a cessation  of  the 
school-life.  The  teacher  was  a coarse,  punishing  pedagogue 
who  openly  said  that  the  children  should  not  divulge  what  took 
place  in  the  school-room,  especially  if  a child  was  tvhipped. 
Our  patient  although  intelligent,  was  often  struck,  but  did  not 
venture  to  complain  to  her  parents.  The  anxiety  became  con- 
stantly stronger.  The  stern  man  could  not  sing  well.  The 
spaces  between  his  teeth  rendered  his  enunciation  difficult. 
If  the  frightened  children  did  not  sing  correctly,  they  wrere 
treated  to  the  violin  bow.  Many  of  them  suffered  from  in- 
hibitions of  speech.  Once,  the  children  had  to’  name  the  doors. 
One  could  not,  because  of  fright,  get  the  words  ‘ ‘ Zwei  Aborte  ’ ’ 
(two  w'ater-closets)  beyond  the  lips.  In  that  - locality,  for- 
bidden things  had  taken  place,  in  which  our  hysterical  patient 


ORIGIN  OF  HYSTERIA  IN  A CHILD 


187 


had  had  a share.  The  latter  was,  therefore,  likewise  inhibited 
from  speaking  the  words  and  received  her  flogging.  Again, 
the  girl  wished  to  seek  protection  from  her  parents  but  was 
afraid  of  the  vengeance  of  the  tormentor.  That  since  that 
time,  the  habit  of  looking  under  the  bed  has  prevailed,  discloses 
that  a sexual  inhibition  must  also  have  existed. 

The  last  and  severest  illness  occurred  after  the  girl  had  been 
punished  for  masturbation  by  the  mother,  an  otherwise  sensible 
and  affectionate  woman.  Even  before  the  first  attack  of  ill- 
ness, the  child  had  once  received  some  slaps  because  she  had 
asked  her  mother  whence  the  children  came.  Without 
doubt,  this  mistake  had  shared  in  the  malady  with  strong 
effect.  During  this  report,  the  patient  excreted  a striking 
amount  of  saliva.  A strong  homosexual  compensation  had 
occurred:  The  child  wished  constantly  to  be  taken  into  bed 
with  the  mother.  By  sleeplessness,  she  really  attained  this 
object  of  being  kept  the  whole  night  by  the  mother. 

Merely  the  opportunity  of  being  allowed  to  confide  these 
tormenting  thoughts  to  the  mother  and  me  exercised  a quieting 
action.  Once  when  she  had  not  been  able  to  go  to  sleep,  she 
had  dictated  to  her  mother  the  following  little  song  which  she 
had  learned  from  a companion  at  school : 

“Mother,  mother,  what  is  that 
Which  crawls  in  my  belly?” 

“Child,  that  I cannot  tell  you. 

You  must  first  ask  your  father!” 

Similarly  run  the  following  lines,  only  here  the  doctor  and 
midwife  are  the  subjects;  the  midwife  answers: 

“Child,  this  I can  tell  you, 

To-morrow  you  will  have  young. 

One  dead,  the  other  blind, 

One  with  a hole  in  the  head.”  * 

Craftily  the  girl  sought  to  retain  her  evil  habit.  Both  be- 
fore and  during  the  illness,  a violent  twitching  of  the  part 

* It  is  remarkable  how  often  those  children  who  are  not  correctly 
enlightened,  fall  into  bloody  sadisticism. 


188 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


in  question  would  occur.  Making  clear  the  meaning  of  this 
attempt  at  extortion  sufficed  to  eliminate  it  at  once. 

The  gimaces  signified,  among  other  things,  in  teeth-showing, 
derision  of  the  toothless  teacher  and  suppression  of  the  sexual 
secret.  The  winking  of  the  eyes  referred  to  the  repression  of 
the  sexual  pleasure  in  looking  (Schaulust)  which  was  ever  very 
keen.  The  grasping  near  objects  showed  on  harmless  objects 
what  would  happen  toward  dangerous  ones.  The  objects 
hurled  away  called  forth  by  symbolic  meaning  anxiety  for 
touching  things.  The  swinging  of  the  arms  proved  to  be 
composite:  One  motion  was  forward  and  ended  in  a menac- 
ing movement  outward.  Asked  to  think  of  this,  the  girl  re- 
called that  her  grandmother  once  said  that  if  one  cannot  speak, 
someone  is  plaguing  him.*  This  someone  was  to  be  warded 
off  by  the  gesture.  Other  determinants  were  added:  When 
one  and  one  half  or  two  years  of  age,  the  child  was  lifted 
out  of  bed  by  the  hands  and  suffered  a slight  dislocation.  This 
information  was  given  by  the  mother  who  was  present  during 
the  whole  analysis.  Another  time  the  father  lifted  his  daugh- 
ter by  the  hands  and  likewise  caused  a dislocation.  Further, 
the  refractory  child  did  not  wish  to  extend  her  hand  to  the  bad 
teacher.  Finally,  she  wished  to  protect  herself  from  falling 
(compare  page  179). 

The  following  case  describes  an  analytic  experiment  which 
was  only  partially  successful:  Into  my  pastoral  care,  there 
came  a high  grade  imbecile  boy,  fifteen  years  of  age,  hysterical, 
who  has  been  subject  to  convulsions  in  the  arms  and  legs  for 
eighteen  months.  Many  times,  for  an  hour,  his  feet  twisted 
inward,  then  outward,  his  arms  were  drawn  back  at  the  elbow 
at  the  same  time,  the  hands  remaining  beside  the  chest.  A 
four  months’  residence  in  a sanitarium  for  nervous  diseases 
had  brought  no  improvement. 

The  convulsive  attitudes  proved  to  be  determined  by  external 
and  internal  associations.  They  referred  to  scenes  which  the 
boy  wished  subliminally,  but  consciously  refused.  He  be- 
longed to  a gang  of  boys,  thirteen  to  fifteen  years  of  age,  who 

‘Beautiful  peasant  psychology! 


HYSTERIA  IN  AN  IMBECILE 


189 


had  banded  together  for  the  purpose  of  sexual  orgies  and  who 
had  not  even  refrained  from  pederasty.  They  were  fond  of 
amusing  themselves  with  obscene  marching  practices.  Once 
they  imitated  a cripple  whose  feet  were  twisted  inward.  In 
so  doing,  they  held  each  other  by  the  genitals.  Our  patient 
advised  against  this  practice  since  it  was  not  right  to  mock  a 
cripple.  Another  time,  the  youths  imitated  hopping  birds  by 
turning  the  feet  outwards  and  again  using  forbidden  holds 
with  the  hands.  A man  saw  this  and  pursued  the  boys  who 
fled.  Thus,  we  understand  that  the  patient  on  the  one  hand 
wished  for  the  sexual  scenes  again,  among  all  of  which,  how- 
ever, he  chose  those  in  convulsions  in  which  he  played  the 
finest  role  and  escaped  successfully  from  the  scrape. 

Therewith,  however,  only  the  outermost  stratum  is  revealed. 
The  dreams  lead  much  deeper.  Since  we  are  not  yet  familiar 
with  dream-formation,  I have  thus  far  given  very  few  dream 
analyses,  although  in  so  doing  I must  have  awakened  an  in- 
correct impression  of  the  course  of  analytic  work  and  one  soon 
to  be  corrected.  At  this  point,  however,  I cannot  avoid  giving 
a short  dream  interpretation.  For  many  years,  our  hysterical 
patient  has  dreamed,  with  slight  variations,  something  like  the 
following  : 

‘ ‘ Someone  crawls  from  under  my  bed.  I spring  upon  him, 
he  seizes  me,  I fall  back  and  go  to  sleep.  He  wishes  to  run 
away,  I again  spring  on  him,  a chase  ensues  and  I call  out; 
father  and  mother  rush  after  the  enemy  with  sticks  and  brooms. 
I seize  the  revolver  which  he  left  lying  under  the  bed  and 
spring  after  the  intruder.  I pursue  him,  striking  him  on  the 
back,  to  the  police-station;  we  all  go  home  and  lie  down  to 
sleep.  I awaken  with  anxiety  that  someone  is  crawling  from 
under  my  bed.” 

This  hysterical  patient  also  looked  under  the  bed  every 
night.  The  man  in  the  dream  held  his  arms  in  crawling  as 
the  dreamer  does  during  his  convulsion.  The  intruder  was 
described  as  thin,  clumsy,  dark,  of  medium  stature.  This  is  the 
way  his  god-father  appears,  as  the  association  now  says.  This 
person  lacked  a finger  joint.  Once,  my  patient  hallucinated 


190 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


this  uncanny  man  as  creeping  forth  from  under  his  bed.  The 
assailant  in  the  dream  seized  the  sleeper  to  tickle  him  under 
the  arms  and  lower  rib  borders,  as  his  father  often  did  in  play 
of  an  evening.  Also,  the  father’s  hands  in  so  doing  assume 
the  attitude  which  appears  automatically  in  the  convulsion. 
Clearly,  the  crawling  figure  is  meant  to  portray  the  father. 
The  severed  finger  joint  of  the  god-father  which  figured  in  one 
place,  betrays  a castration  thought.  The  attitude  of  crouch- 
ing on  the  elbows  is  also  that  of  a person  during  coitus.  The 
son  imitates  in  his  automatism  the  father  and  pursues  him  from 
the  house  in  the  dream  as  a sexual  criminal  with  the  aid  of  the 
asexual  father.  The  blows  which  the  fugitive  receives,  reminds 
our  hero  of  those  which  he  himself  received.  To  this,  comes 
another  plot:  The  dreamer  had  read,  shortly  before  the 
hallucination,  of  a murderer  who  lurked  under  the  bed. 
Hence  he  phantasied  himself  in  this  role.  At  that  time,  he 
threatened  his  brother  that  he  would  strike  him  dead,  for 
which,  he  was  whipped  by  his  father.  Further,  the  repressed 
wish  to  destroy  his  brother,  also  exists  in  the  symptom.  Later 
when  the  convulsion  had  already  occurred,  still  other  phan- 
tasies were  added : He  gave  to  the  man  lying  on  his  elbows, 
the  face  of  a coal  carrier  who  had  asked  him  the  way  to  the 
cellar.  The  position  of  the  arms  of  the  sack  bearer,  in  its 
sexual  symbolic  meaning,  thus  strengthened  the  symptom. 

After  the  first  sessions,  the  contractures  lessened  to  a mini- 
mum. Then  a resistance  asserted  itself  which  I could  not 
overcome.  The  boy  refused  to  give  information,  his  defects  in 
intelligence  probably  served  the  repression  in  good  stead. 
Hence,  the  convulsions  became  greater,  but  at  their  greatest, 
did  not  attain  the  intensity  and  frequency  which  they  had 
had  for  the  eighteen  months  preceding  the  treatment.  I hoped 
to  be  able  to  analyze  the  boy  completely  later  and  spared  the 
extremely  tiresome  work  only  for  the  time  being.  Unfor- 
tunately, after  some  weeks,  the  boy  left  my  place  of  residence. 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  remembered  that  normal  in- 
dividuals also  very  frequently  show  a slight  physical  mani- 
festation. A minor  or  major  headache  or  stomachache,  a mild 


PSYCHOGENESIS  OF  PHYSICAL  DISORDERS  191 


intestinal  catarrh,  a mild  insomnia  and  similar  incidents  of 
psychogenic  nature  (mental  origin)  are  thousandfold  and  be- 
long to  the  every-day  phenomena  which  may  be  eliminated  by 
a little  occasional  analysis  (often  by  autoanalysis).  Who  is 
not  a little  bit  nervous?  The  famous  neurologist,  Mobius, 
asserts  in  all  seriousness  that  every  person  has  hysterical  symp- 
toms and  no  one  has  contradicted  him. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  PSYCHIC  PATHS 

Every  repression  restricts  an  instinct  in  such  a manner 
that  its  activity  in  reality  is  rendered  permanently  impossible 
to  a lesser  or  greater  extent.  Often,  the  inhibition  of  the 
instinct  is  so  insignificant  that  it  is  either  not  perceptible  or 
so  only  by  the  most  careful  analytic  investigation;  in  severe 
cases,  this  inhibition  can  drive  men  into  the  most  tormenting 
confinement;  indeed  a severe  psychoneurosis  or  psychosis  be- 
longs under  some  circumstances  to  the  most  dreadful  things 
which  can  happen  in  life.  In  every  repression,  the  life-force 
comes  into  some  state  of  inhibited  development,  it  may  be  in  its 
activity  as  reproductive  function  or  as  nutritional  instinct  or  in 
other  interests. 

Whatever  is  inhibited  by  repression  is,  according  to  our 
psychological  understanding  (54),  the  instinct,  but  only  in 
certain  concrete  performances,  thus,  those  united  to  intellectual 
and  emotional  affairs.  In  their  places,  the  life-force  seeks  new 
paths,  which,  when  they  do  not  appear  on  the  physical  side, 
lead  just  as  easily  to  changed  emotional  processes  as  to  altered 
intellectual  phenomena. 

I shall  sketch  these  processes  in  detail,  without  regard  to 
whether  we  are  observing  them  in  sound  or  sick  persons. 
Particular  considerations  recommend  reproducing  the  most 
important  pathological  types  in  their  fundamental  character- 
istics. The  same  laws  hold  for  healthy  and  sick.  Yes,  the 
conflicts,  too,  which  oppress  the  sick  in  their  sufferings,  are  the 
same  which  make  the  healthy  work.* 

•Jung,  D.  Inhalt  d.  Psychose,  p.  25. 


192 


LOSSES  OF  EMOTION 


193 


1.  The  Paths  of  the  Libido  in  Detail 

A.  EMOTIONAL  PROCESSES 

1.  Losses  of  Emotion 

(a)  The  repression  often  expresses  itself  very  strikingly  in 
the  decrease  of  such  emotions  as  have  been  present  and  the  non- 
appearance  of  expected  new  emotions.  For  the  educator,  these 
ellipses  are  of  considerable  importance  for  they  may  definitely 
determine  the  direction  of  the  life.  The  pedagogue  trained  in 
analysis  is  greatly  needed  by  those  who  are  emotionless  toward 
their  fellowmen  and  hence  despairing  of  life,  or  those  who  in 
pathological  irritability,  make  enemies  of  everyone.  Most  por- 
tentous is  the  emotional  loss,  when,  at  time  of  marriage,  the 
real  sexual  demand  comes  to  ap  individual.  Since  the  roots 
of  the  absence  of  love,  which  is  often  so  tragic,  go  back  to 
childhood,  the  educator  must  be  familiar  with  these  processes. 

Frequently,  lovers  discover,  to  their  deep  pain,  that  their 
ardor 'grows  cool  without  visible  motive  and  indeed  may  cease. 
The  judgment  and  estimation  of  the  erotic  object  has  remained 
the  same  or  some  tiny  objection  may  have  arisen  which  does 
not  at  all  justify  the  refusal  of  love.  In  spite  of  all  self-re- 
proaches, of  all  autosuggestive  arguments,  love  remains  absent 
and  in  its  place,  inner  disgust,  anxiety,  pity,  perhaps  despair 
have  become  active. 

The  traditional  psychology  which  oriented  itself  almost  ex- 
clusively according  to  the  surface  of  consciousness,  did  not 
know  what  to  make  of  this  process,  as  it  in  general  knew  little 
how  to  deal  with  the  wonderfully  rich  and  varied,  but  also 
difficult  to  understand,  field  of  the  love-life.  Does  psycho- 
analysis solve  the  riddle  ? 

Two  very  young  girls,  who  were  joined  to  excellent  men  in 
strong  love  and  suddenly  lost  their  affection  apparently  en- 
tirely, came  under  my  pastoral  observation.  With  one,  vulgar 
sexual  enlightenment  by  a girl  comrade  had  caused  distaste  for 
marriage  and  therewith  the  disappearance  of  love.  The  other 


194. 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


had  shared  the  room  of  a somewhat  frivolous  companion  for 
some  time  and  become  familiar  with  nasty  things.  In  addition, 
she  heard  an  older  girl  speak  of  “worldly  love”  as  impure  and 
impious  and  in  contrast,  praise  the  sweet  adoration  of  Jesus 
in  extreme  pietistic  form,  as  holy.  The  purity  of  heart,  the 
quiet  holiness  of  the  pious  exhorter,' who,  with  the  Apostle 
Paul,  judged  everything  else  as  dross  in  order  to  win  Christ, 
contrasted  favorably  with  the  foolish  actions  of  the  other  com- 
panion. The  very  young  little  fiancee  fled  from  the  tempta- 
tions of  her  despised  sexuality  into  ascetic  piety.  To  her 
lover,  a worthy  teacher,  she  wrote  a farewell  letter,  sympa- 
thetic but  energetic  in  tone,  of  being  the  happy  bride  of  Christ 
and  was  deaf  to  all  entreaties  of  her  parents  and  of  the 
troubled  fiance,  as  well  as  to  all  religious  and  moral  teachings ; 
hence  they  turned  to  me.  I advised  explaining  to  her  the 
origin  of  her  conduct.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the  fanaticism  dis- 
appeared very  soon  and  the  earlier  love  returned  enriched 
by  purer  ideas  of  the  value  of  marriage. 

A youth  of  twenty  years  complained  to  me  that  his  feeling 
toward  his  fiancee,  to  whom  he  had  been  deeply  attached  for 
some  years,  had  for  a few  months  disappeared.  He  torments 
the  girl  by  undeserved  nagging,  of  which  he  is  afterwards 
ashamed.  Now  he  begs  me  to  tell  him  whence  comes  his  cold- 
ness and  what  he  should  do.  In  accordance  with  my  wish,  he 
reported  his  last  dream.  It  ran  as  follows : “I  dreamed  that 
I stood  in  the  Kasernenplatz  and  my  lady  friend  went  by.” 
[Nothing  else?]  “Yes.  The  whole  dream  was:  I am 
Standing  in  the  court  of  our  former  school-house.  Someone 
commanded  repeatedly:  ‘Stand  at  attention!’  I obey  each 
time  and  stand  at  attention.  Thereupon,  I find  myself  with 
my  cousin  in  the  waiting-room  of  a polyclinic.”  [The  court.] 
“There,  as  a boy,  I passed  by  with  my  present  friend.” 
[Someone.]  “My  friend.”  [Stand  at  attention.]  “Thus 
we  are  commanded  early  in  military  service.  That  was  espe- 
cially painful  to  me.  I cannot  endure  this  physical  obedi- 
ence.” [I  obey  each  time.]  “The  motion,  a sudden  jerk, 


INTERPRETATION  OF  A DREAM 


196 


a drawing  back  of  the  shoulders  and  throwing  out  of  the  chest, 
then  the  sinking  together,  was  rhythmical  and  reminded  me  of 
something  which  you  can  already  imagine.  I was  much  ex- 
cited. I spoke  with  my  friend  of  free  love.  Before  I ex- 
plained to  her,  she  knew  nothing  of  sexual  things  and  became 
suddenly  eager  to  assume  all  the  consequences  of  love  since  we 
both  suffer,  love  each  other  and  are  destined  to  marry.  I told 
her  of  my  scruples.  Then  she  became  sad.  Her  love  seemed 
to  have  gone,  also  she  will  no  longer  yield  everything  for 
others,  while  previously  she  was  noted  for  altruism.”  [The 
cousin.]  “She  is  of  same  age  as  myself  and  resembles  my 
mother  in  many  ways.  ’ ’ 

For  the  comprehension  of  the  dream,  it  should  be  added  that 
the  youth  had  questioned  me  concerning  free  love  some  months 
before,  probably  shortly  before  the  loss  of  his  love.  He  had 
at  that  time  almost  decided  to  accept  the  offer  of  his  fiancee 
but  was  convinced  of  the  ethical  objections  to  prenuptial  sexual 
intercourse.  His  present  communication  allows  the  unspoken 
reproof  to  be  perceived : ‘ ‘ There,  now  see  what  you  have  done ! 
I am  betrayed  in  my  love  and  debased  to  a moody  man,  the 
loved  one  too  from  a noble-minded  nature  to  an  egotistic 
creature ! ’ ’ 

The  interpretation  is:  “I  obey  (ironically)  the  beloved, 
who  stimulates  me  in  annoying  manner  to  sexual  intercourse 
(commands)  ,*  I prefer,  however,  to  pass  the  time  which  I must 
wait  while  love-sick,  with  the  upright,  mother-like  cousin.” 

Now  we  understand  why  the  love  failed : The  youth  wishes 
his  unpleasant  irritations  out  of  the  way.  His  absence  of  love 
is  not  necessarily  genuine  but  signifies  merely  a defence  neu- 
rosis (Freud)  or  measure  of  assurance  (Adler).  We  observe 
at  the  same  time  the  flight  to  the  mother  (modeled  on  the  in- 
fantile). Noteworthy  further  is  the  so  frequent  double-faced 
character  of  the  manifestation:  It  can  express  renunciation 
quite  as  well  as  longing.  The  youth  would  like  to  discover  a 

* The  command  “Achtung,  steht!”  (attention,  stand!)  naturally 
refers  ironically  to  erection. 


196 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


moral  demand  for  sexual  intercourse,  the  dream  betrays  a 
higher  ethical  tendency.* 

A peasant  boy  of  eighteen  desired  my  help  because  he  felt 
unable  to  work  and  was  constantly  cold  toward  everybody. 
The  drunken  father,  whom  he  hurled  to  the  floor  recently  in 
protecting  his  mother,  and  had  to  tie  with  a rope,  he  hates 
and  despises.  Also,  for  the  mother  who  had  shown  him  too 
little  affection  when  he  was  small,  he  has  no  hearty  feeling,  no 
matter  how  much  he  tries  to  have  it.  His  comrades  are  as  a 
whole  unfit  for  friendship  since  he  must  mostly  refuse  them  or 
where  he  could  be  friendly,  is  rejected  by  them.  The  youth 
shows  strong  introversion  (shut  off  from  the  outer  world, 
turning  of  the  libido  inward)  and  cannot  be  approached  with 
grounds  of  reason.  His  inner  need  is  great.  Analysis  of  his 
dreams  shows : The  young  man  is  fixed  upon  his  mother  who 
outweighs  companions  of  his  own  age.  In  the  conflict  between 
mother  and  comrades,  he  appears  in  the  dream  upon  the 
mother’s  side.  The  faults  with  which  he  reproaches  his  com- 
rades are  exactly  those  with  which  he  convicts  himself  (pro- 
jections). The  dream  following  this  disclosure  is  typically 
homosexual  and  anal-erotic,  as  in  the  case  of  a man  soon  to  be 
discussed  (200).  My  patient  was  greatly  surprised  when  I 
remarked  to  him  that  from  the  dream,  I should  conclude  that 
his  bowel  functions  were  not  in  order;  in  reality,  he  has  suf- 
fered since  childhood  from  constipation  which  trouble  dis- 
appeared from  the  day  of  the  analysis.  The  next  dream  pic- 
tured the  reconciliation  with  his  father  but  at  the  expense  of 
his  comrades  who  came  off  badly.  The  following  conversation 
affords  the  motive:  “I  have  always  been  defenceless  against 
them.”  Because  unconsciously  he  feels  inferior  to  them,  he 
belittles  them  consciously.  Finally,  after  eleven  conversa- 
tions, the  libido  was  forced  to  apply  itself  to  the  sur- 
roundings in  normal  manner.  Since  then,  the  young  man 
feels  happy,  contented  with  life,  able  to  work  and  entirely 

* One  sees  also  from  this  example  that  the  unconscious  in  no  ways 
always  represents  a kingdom  of  the  animalistic,  unmoral  and  hostile  to 
culture,  even  though  this  is  usually  the  case. 


LOSS  OF  LOVE 


197 


healthy.  Hate  and  inhibitions  for  work  have  disappeared. 

Other  examples,  we  saw  on  pages  80,  94,  111.  The  pastor 
often  has  to  deal  with  marriages  in  which  the  hearth-fire  is 
out  because  love  has  failed.  Naturally,  love  cannot  be  extorted 
by  admonitions  and  good  advice.  On  the  other  hand,  I know 
a number  of  cases  in  which  when  the  repression  was  eliminated, 
the  pent-up  love  returned  and  brought  a beautiful  happiness 
with  it.  One  must  guard  carefully  against  considering  the  loss 
of  the  emotion  of  love  as  absence  of  love.  Under  the  threshold 
of  consciousness,  the  inclination  very  often  exists  in  great 
force  and  waits  longingly  for  occasion  to  master  conscious- 
ness. 

Love  often  diminishes  where  in  the  substitute  for  the  parents, 
traits  appear  which  do  not  correspond  to  those  of  the  parents. 
Once  on  a journey,  I became  acquainted  with  a young  merchant 
who  had  been  married  only  a month  and  had  used  this  period 
to  acquire  a nice  neurosis.  He  slept  twelve  hours  at  night 
and  every  midday  from  two  till  six  o ’clock,  thus  demonstrating 
very  plainly  his  wish  for  a flight  from  reality.  Hours  at  a 
time,  he  sat  weeping  and  brooding  over  his  misfortune  before 
the  funeral  wreath  of  his  mother.  Love  for  his  attractive  wife 
had  entirely  disappeared.  The  anamnesis  disclosed:  The 
young  wife  was  a niece,  of  the  dead  mother  of  the  subject.  He 
had  known  her  from  a child  but  felt  no  deep  affection  for  her. 
Only  when  the  mother  lay  on  her  death-bed,  did  the  cousin  who 
was  some  years  older  than  himself  and  resembled  the  mother 
in  face,  suddenly  appear  to  him  as  uncommonly  lovable.  He 
became  engaged  to  her  very  quickly  and  married  her.  Even 
on  the  next  day,  he  felt  that  he  had  been  deceived.  It  was 
easy  for  me  to  overcome  the  sleepiness  but  because  of  lack  of 
time,  I referred  the  patient  to  a neurologist  for  a thorough 
analysis.  The  latter  cured  the  neurosis  but  also  demonstrated 
a dementia  prsecox  in  the  woman  which  gave  a bad  outlook 
for  the  marriage. 

Similar  perils  to  marriage  from  fixations  upon  the  parents 
occur  so  frequently  that  one  would  earnestly  wish  that  all  those 
about  to  be  married  might  know  whether  they  are  fooled  by  an 


198 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


injurious  father-  or  mother-substitute.  Only  the  analysis  can 
afford  conclusion  on  this  point. 

Other  cases  also  occur:  love  can  be  repressed  by  the  fact 
that  infantile  repressed  hate  comes  to  life  again.  This  condi- 
tion, the  analyst  in  particular  often  has  to  trace  (compare  be- 
low, Chapter  XVII,  The  Transference) 

Where  a love  which  was  not  simply  a neurotic  flood-wave 
(see  following  section)  disappears,  we  are  often  dealing  with  a 
regression  to  an  infantile  condition.  If  there  is  no  place  for 
the  ardent  longing,  then  it  seeks  the  parent-substitutes  which 
occasioned  the  infantile  condition. 

(b)  A second  group  of  emotional  deficiencies  has  to  do  with 
emotions  hindered  by  repression.  These  inhibitions  also  are 
to  blame  for  much  unhappiness.  Numbers  of  people  come  to 
every  analyst  who  suffer  shipwreck  because  the  deepest  long- 
ing either  comes  not  at  all  or  too  late  into  consciousness.  The 
motives  are  the  same  as  in  the  rejection  of  emotion.  Wheije  it 
was  formerly  believed  that  the  inability  to  love  was  to  be  ex- 
plained as  a primary  disposition,  we  know  to-day  that  every 
person  who  is  not  an  idiot  bears  within  himself  sexual  and 
erotic  capabilities  and  that  incapacity  for  sexual  love  depends 
without  exception  on  repression  processes.  In  proof,  I can 
offer  for  consideration  here  only  a limited  number  of  observa- 
tions from  an  abundant  material. 

An  unmarried  woman  physician  of  fifty  became  ill  from  a 
severe  obsessional  neurosis.  She  had  to  add  the  street-lamps, 
square  the  sum  and  make  that  the  starting-point  for  other,  in 
part  more  complicated,  computations.  Still  worse,  however, 
did  three  obsessing  ideas  torment  her  and  give  her  no  rest: 
She  constantly  heard  the  melodies:  “You  are  embraced,  mil- 
lions, this  kiss  of  the  whole  world!”  and  “I  know  that  my 
Redeemer  liveth.  ’ ’ In  addition,  she  saw  herself  sitting  in  the 
snow  in  a pool  of  blood.  The  lady  who  told  me  of  this  ease 
discovered  the  meaning  of  both  obsessions  herself : the  patient 
had  as  a girl  received  a marriage  proposal  to  which  in  spite  of 
all  high  esteem  for  the  lover  and  all  friendship  for  him,  she 
could  not  react  with  love.  In  the  menopause,  the  Jove,  long 


INHIBITIONS  TO  LOVE 


199 


withheld,  breaks  violently  forth  and  turns  toward  the  man 
whom  she  really  loved  without  knowing  it.  An  analysis  was 
not  done.  The  visual  phantasy,  I am  inclined  to  consider, 
because  of  analogous  cases,  as  realizing  the  wish  for  birth  in  a 
condition  of  innocence. 

From  my  own  work  I know  of  the  following  examples : A 
woman  teacher  of  thirty-five  years  had  earlier,  on  account  of 
superior  intellectual,  esthetic  and  ethical  talents,  been  courted 
uncommonly  much  but  was  not  able  to  produce  the  eroticism 
necessary  for  marriage  or  a love  affair.  She  is  the  ideal  friend 
who  charms  everyone  by  her  sympathetic  nature.  But  the 
sentimentality  of  her  expression  was  united,  as  so  often,  to  the 
incapacity  to  realize  her  eroticism.  While  she  dedicated  her- 
self to  children  with  touching  devotion,  her  innermost  nature 
cried  out  for  salvation  and  love.  Still,  for  years,  she  felt  happy 
since  she  successfully  repressed  the  voices  from  the  depths. 
Finally  came  the  breaking  through  of  the  unconscious.  Mel- 
ancholia with  strong  suicidal  impulses  which  led  to  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  take  her  own  life  rendered  analysis  neces- 
sary. The  analytic  investigation  revealed  the  evidence  that 
the  love  of  the  patient  was  entirely  attached  to  her  father  and 
her  whole  life  filled  with  the  wish  to  impress  this  important 
man,  for  whom,  in  consciousness,  there  was  little  inclination. 
Her  whole  activity  formed  an  imitation  of  the  father,  without 
the  person  in  question  being  aware  of  it;  on  this  uncompre- 
hended plan,  her  life  happiness  threatened  to  be  wrecked. 
When  the  fixation  was  removed,  the  patient,  now  eager  for  life, 
returned  to  her  friendships.  Every  morning  she  awakened 
in  tears:  The  onetime  lovers  appeared  one  after  another  in 
her  dreams  and  waking  phantasies  and  she  thought  she  cuuld 
detect  that  she  had  secretly  loved  one  or  the  other,  only  the 
former  condition  of  being  chained  by  her  complexes,  had  pre- 
vented the  deep-rooted  emotion  from  coming  into  conscious- 
ness.* 

The  analysis,  from  which  I present  only  a small  fragment, 

* It  would  also  be  conceivable  that  the  eroticism,  only  now  set  free, 
projects  a newly  developed  love  upon  the  images  out  of  the  past. 


200 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


gave  her  the  ability  to  adapt  her  inclinations  to  reality.  She 
regretted  most  deeply  the  blindness  of  her  previous  life  which 
seemed  to  her  in  spite  of  admirable  results  rather  a dallying 
with  the  realities  of  life.  We  are  dealing  here  with  a person 
who  in  the  sense  of  the  traditional  pathology  must  have  been 
called  perfectly  normal  and  yet  she  was  restrained  from  her 
own  destiny  by  subliminal  restrictions.  How  many  individuals 
are  forced  in  similar  manner  with  demoniacal  violence  to  paths 
which  prevent  a free  development  of  their  highest,  especially 
their  moral,  powers.  How  much  poverty  in  love  is  not  inborn 
but  merely  the  expression  of  an  infantile  fixation  which  might 
be  dissipated  by  analytic  pedagogy ! 

Often,  the  eroticism  is  displayed  in  perverse  formations. 
I will  show  in  two  examples  how  the  barring  of  normal  love-im- 
pulses precedes  that  kind  of  sexual  abnormalities. 

A wealthy  merchant  of  twenty-six  years,  of  superior  talents, 
is  incapable  of  loving  a girl  and  founding  his  own  household. 
The  apparently  completely  normal  man  loves  poetry  and  him- 
self writes  lyric  poems  of  excellent  content  and  admirable 
execution.  Strangely  enough,  however,  the  expression  of  love 
is  absolutely  lacking  in  them.  His  sexual  needs  he  satisfies 
without  scruple  by  means  of  prostitutes.  Thus,  it  cannot  sur- 
prise us  that  he  does  not  know  how  to  gain  much  from  life 
although  he  might  be  a real  artist  with  his  excellent  talents. 
Without  psychoanalysis,  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  ex- 
plain his  condition.  The  dreams  disclosed  not  only  the  ex- 
traordinarily frequent  wish  to  return  to  the  mother’s  womb, 
but  also  a strong  interest  for  the  lower  back  parts  of  his 
mother.  The  wish,  to  lie  there,  pushes  forward  strongly.  To 
this  wish  there  is  joined  a group  of  characteristics  which 
Freud  * first  discovered  and  which  have  since  been  very  often 
substantiated.  Freud  recognized  in  a considerable  number 
of  persons  a striking  love  of  orderliness,  frugality  and  stub- 
bornness, besides  chronic  constipation.  This  type  is  met 
frequently  in  shop  people,  teachers  and  scholars,  who,  in  spite 

* Freud,  Character  und  Analerotik.  Kl.  Schriften  II,  pp.  132-137. 


ANAL-EROTICISM 


201 


of  a scrupulous  overpunctuality,  do  not  attain  to  a noble 
achievement  corresponding  to  their  talents.  Freud  furnished 
the  proof  that  all  these  persons  are  neurotics  who  were  robbed 
by  a certain  repression  of  a considerable  part  of  their  chances 
in  life,  and  he  disclosed  the  inner  psychological  connections  of 
the  symptoms.  Thanks  to  analysis,  that  devastation  of  life 
can  be  eliminated. 

The  young  man  of  whom  I am  speaking  was  analerotic  * to 
a high  degree  without  feeling  anything  of  the  homosexual  or 
pedarastic  wishes.  In  his  toilet,  he  is  laughably  exact.  It 
is  terrible  to  him  to  be  compelled  to  make  a visit  in  a hurry 
because  it  is  two  days  since  he  was  shaved.  Every  minutia, 
the  multimillionaire  writes  carefully  down.  A certain  prefer- 
ence for  peculiarities  is  unmistakable.  With  his  parents,  he 
is  on  bad  terms,  especially  with  his  father  who  is  still  deeper 
in  analerotieism  than  he.  Twice,  the  youth  attempted  to 
fall  in  love,  but  he  chose  two  cousins  with  whom  he  knew  in  ad- 
vance, according  to  his  testimony,  that  an  alliance  was  abso- 
lutely impossible.  Naturally,  the  love  was  insincere.  It  was 
a clever  attempt  to  free  himself  from  the  mother  by  the  aid  of 
a mother-double. 

The  neurotic  individual  being  on  a journey,  I could  hold 
only  two  conversations  with  him.  They  sufficed  to  make  clear 
his  situation  to  him  and  awaken  in  him  the  decision  to  free 
himself  from  his  inhibitions  by  thorough  analysis  in  order 
to  attain  an  efficient  life. 

As  last  example,  I mention  a woman  principal  of  an  insti- 
tute, twenty-eight  years  of  age,  of  high  moral  standing,  whom 
a neurologist  of  my  pastorate  introduced.  The  lady  suffers 
from  severe  melancholia  since  she  thinks  she  cannot  longer 
endure  her  homosexual  needs.  If  she  met  a young  girl  on 
the  street,  she  would  be  seized  with  an  ardent  desire  to  kiss 
her.  Weeks  at  a time,  she  saw  the  unknown  girl,  who  was 
perhaps  not  particularly  charming,  constantly  before  her,  and 
could  no  longer  sleep  from  grief  over  the  fact  that  she  cannot 

*Anus  signifies  the  end  of  the  bowel. 


202 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


satisfy  her  kissing  passion  as  on  some  earlier  friends.  Especial 
pain  was  caused  her  by  the  fear  that  she  had  seduced  to  homo- 
sexual love  a fourteen-year  old  girl  entrusted  to  her  care,  by 
her  sensual  tenderness,  although  improper  acts  had  never  oc- 
curred. The  little  girl  trembled  with  excitement  when  she 
was  embraced  and  wept  of  lovesickness  when  she  did  not  see 
the  beloved  one  often  enough. 

Our  homosexual  patient  had  a father,  physically  handsome, 
but  one  who  was  insignificant  and  anxious,  who  left  entirely 
to  his  energetic  and  intelligent  wife  the  direction  of  the  business 
and  the  education  of  the  children.  The  little  daughter  ad- 
mired her  mother  and,  even  early,  judged  her  father  as  insig- 
nificant. As  a small  girl  she  was  normal.  She  played  equally 
gladly  with  boys  and  girls.  With  both,  she  encountered  im- 
proper things : girls  allowed  themselves  in  the  dangerous  play 
of  doctor,  to  be  guilty  of  improper  touching,  and  further,  a 
little  sickly  boy  with  whom  the  child  had  to  associate  when 
seven  to  nine  years  old,  allowed  similar  transgressions.  When 
about  eight  years  old,  she  fell  in  love  with  an  adult  cousin 
who  often  tossed  her  in  the  air,  during  which  procedure  she 
felt  a “peculiar  sensation.”  When  ten  or  eleven  years  old, 
she  was  repeatedly  misused  by  a woman  housekeeper  of  forty 
years.  Pronounced  homosexuality  broke  out  when  the  girl 
was  thirteen  years  old.  At  that  time,  she  went  much  with  a 
teacher  who  resembled  her  mother  in  many  ways  but  who  sur- 
passed her  in  culture.  This  passionate  individual,  who  had 
outspoken  homosexual  tendencies,  for  two  years  overwhelmed 
the  girl  with  excessive  affection.  At  that  period,  there  de- 
veloped in  the  little  one  a genuine  passion  for  kissing  while 
the  sexual  desires  awakened  by  the  housekeeper  receded.  Some 
little  love  affairs  with  boys  also  led  to  kissing  but  passion  was 
lacking  in  these  affairs.  Those  affairs  were  undertaken  more 
from  imitation  and  vanity. 

In  the  pension,  the  one-sided  erotic  direction  was  further 
developed  in  warm  friendships.  When  nineteen  years  of  age, 
she  undertook  two  heterosexual  erotic  attempts  which,  how- 
ever, failed.  The  first  concerned  a very  young  artist  of  femi- 


HOMOSEXUALITY 


203 


nine  'appearance.  The  love  was  very  intimate,  the  young  girl 
revelled  in  ideal  conversation  and  liked  to  exchange  kisses  with 
the  youth.  After  his  departure  there  came  a correspondence 
filled  with  homesickness ; promises  were  not  given. 

Five  or  six  weeks  after  the  separation  from  her  beloved 
friend,  she  became  engaged  out  of  despair  to  a fine  peasant 
boy  since  she  got  along  badly  at  home  with  a relative  and  had 
to  give  up  the  plan  of  a higher  education.  She  thought  to 
develop  love  for  her  fiance  but  immediately  after  the  published 
announcement  of  her  engagement,  anxiety  overwhelmed  her 
that  she  had  undertaken  something  impossible.  The  dull,  re- 
tiring man  plainly  resembled  her  father.  Seven  months,  she 
dissembled  love ; every  morning  brought  gall  and  longing  for 
death.  Finally,  she  broke  off  the  relation  and  concentrated 
her  emotions  entirely  on  relatives  of  her  own  sex.  In  this, 
she  retained  a refined,  feminine  attitude  and  gave  the  im- 
pression of  having  a genuine  maidenly  nature. 

So  long  as  she  was  homosexually  gratified,  she  troubled  her- 
self little  about  vocation,  nature,  art  and  religion;  as  soon 
as  her  tendency  underwent  inhibitions,  the  ideal  interests  ap- 
peared in  force.  She  herself  compared  these  fluctuations  to 
a balance. 

When  she  was  ardently  in  love,  she  was  free  from  sexual 
excitements.  Once  with  the  unloved  fiance,  on  the  other  hand, 
she  was  sexually  excited  when  he  caressed  her  in  an  entirely 
proper  manner. 

The  analysis  could  not  be  carried  to  the  end,  unfortunately, 
since  the  improvement  appeared  too  quickly.  Feminine  in- 
verted individuals  have  not  so  far  been  analyzed.  I dare  not 
venture  to  illuminate  the  darkness.  Still,  I can  point  out  some 
spots  of  light. 

The  reaction  attempt  pointed  to  only  the  most  superficial 
layers  of  the  repressions  present.  The  first  dream  led  deeper : 
“A  cat  bit  me  on  the  front  of  the  left  index  finger  and  for  a 
long  time  would  not  release  me.  Then  the  finger  swelled  up 
and  burst  open  to  the  bone.  The  tendon  was  lacerated,  much 
water  flowed  out.  Then  someone  said  I would  have  a stiff 


204 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


finger.  I thought:  ‘What  a shame,  now  I cannot  play  the 
piano  any  more!’  I awoke  and  found  my  finger  so  fast 
asleep  that  I could  not  move  it.  ’ ’ 

Sleep  was  preceded  by  a despairing  prayer  which  brought 
temporary  rest.  Before  the  analysis,  the  girl  was  extremely 
restless  and  longed  for  her  loved  ones  but  said  that  she  only 
brought  new  misfortune  on  them. 

To  the  cat  was  associated  the  house  in  which  the  housekeeper 
lived,  after  this,  the  child  who  was  apparently  seduced  to  homo- 
sexuality and  a friend  of  her  youth  who  loved  the  dreamer 
when  she  was  eight  or  ten  years  old.  The  kitten  had  at  first 
wanted  to  bite  her  in  the  foot.  The  swelling  finger  acquired 
on  the  underside  a four-cornered  appendix  like  a magazine  rifle. 
Its  sexual  symbolic  meaning  becomes  thereby  still  plainer: 
The  patient  dreamed  herself  in  the  man’s  position,  her  sleeping 
finger  awoke  the  idea  of  an  erect  penis.  The  bursting  open  to 
the  bone  and  the  losing  of  water  disclose  that  a feminine  phan- 
tasy was  also  active  in  the  unconscious.  The  upper  slit  is 
like  that  of  a gun. 

Now  the  dreamer  recalled  that  the  water  flowed  down  steps 
and  that  she  ran  with  her  wound  to  a woman  physician  friend. 
The  latter  met  her  suddenly  in  the  neighborhood  of  a merry- 
go-round.  Then  said  the  sister  of  the  injured  one:  “She 
can  fix  your  finger  in  a minute.”  But  the  physician  inter- 
posed: “I  am  sorry  but  I do  not  operate.”  She  sent  the 
patient  to  a male  physician. 

The  associations  were  few : The  intimate  woman  physician 
friend  had  really  said  to  her  shortly  before  that  unfortunately 
she  did  not  operate  but  would  take  an  operative  course.  She 
had  danced  with  her  at  a masked  ball  (hence  the  merry-go- 
round).  The  sexuality  excited  by  the  young  seduced  girl  was 
to  be  gratified  by  the  friend  of  like  age.  This  wish  is  repressed 
in  favor  of  a heterosexual  one.  The  physician  is  the  analyst 
on  whom  a weak  transference  (see  below)  came  into  existence. 
That  the  physician  helped  is  therefore  not  dreamed.  The  sex- 
uality conceived  as  masculine  remains  therefore  as  tension  (the 
finger  remained  stiff).  The  earlier  graceful  love  activity 


HOMOSEXUALITY 


205 

(piano  playing)  ceases.  A solution  of  the  conflict  is  not  found, 
hence  comes  the  flight  to  the  waking  state ; still  the  longing  for 
health  prevails. 

The  peripheral  sexuality  of  this  homosexual  individual  has 
been  repressed,  as  it  seems,  as  a result  of  disgusting  experi- 
ences. As  substitute,  the  passion  for  kissing  sprang  up.  The 
constitutional  claims  of  the  eroticism  became  fixed  on  the 
mother  who  was  also  apparently  inclined  to  harmless,  asexual 
kissing.  The  higher  needs  forced  an  intensive  identification 
with  the  mother.  The  repressed  sexuality,  nevertheless,  plainly 
entered  into  a comparison  with  the  handsome  but  mentally  un- 
important father.  Even  in  strongly  heterosexual  girls,  we 
often  find  hysterical  symptoms  which  show  that  a masculine 
sexual  role  has  been  assumed.  But  in  the  cases  known  to  me, 
only  the  incestuous  love,  not  the  whole  sexuality,  was  split  off. 
Our  present  patient,  on  the  other  hand,  fell  into  homosexual 
passion  for  kissing  because  a radical  genital  repression  occurred 
and  the  infantile  incestuous  love  for  the  imposing  father  was 
later  thrown  into  eclipse  by  the  recognition  of  his  inferiority. 
The  father  lingers,  so  far  as  I can  assume  from  analogous  ob- 
servations on  other  inverted  individuals,  for  her  in  every  man 
so  far  as  he  does  not,  like  the  young  artist,  have  a feminine 
figure.  Hence  the  passion  for  kissing  must  apply  itself  to  the 
female  sex. 

The  analysis  of  the  dream  quoted  gave  the  inverted  one  * 
first  of  all  the  certainty  that  behind  the  apparently  harmless 
and  therefore  tenaciously  retained  longing  for  affection  from 
persons  of  the  female  sex,  gross  sexual  wishes  lurked.  At  first 
this  unpleasant  discovery  caused  fright  but  it  also  occasioned 
the  passage  to  valuable  sublimations. 

The  lady  now  voluntarily  renounced  the  sensual  tenderness, 
the  loss  of  which  no  longer  made  her  unhappy.  Since  we  were 
dealing  with  a mild  inversion,  an  entirely  normal  eroticism 
might  perhaps  have  been  attained  if  the  patient  had  not  been 
so  highly  pleased  that  she  withdrew  from  analysis.  It  was 

* Freud’s  expression  fox  persons  whose  sexuality  is  directed  exclu- 
sively to  members  of  the  same  sex  (Drei  Abh.,  p.  2). 


£06 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


striking  how  the  physical  appearance  changed : the  face  which 
had  become  prematurely  aged  from  worry,  again  assumed  a 
youthful  appearance. 

I could  now  show  by  a still  further  list  of  examples  how  the 
heterosexual  emotions  could  not  appear  in  normal  manner 
toward  persons  outside  the  family  because  they  were  fixed  on 
brothers  or  sisters.  It  might  be  shown  that  without  exception 
this  subconscious  repression  goes  back  to  a deeper-lying  fixa- 
tion upon  the  parents.  But  in  this  book,  we  can  offer  only  a 
few  examples. 

We  have  seen  that  not  only  insincere  but  also  real  repression- 
free  emotions  may  be  lost  under  the  influence  of  the  repression. 
That  the  libido  knows  how  to  create  constantly  a substitute  in 
all  this  change,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  demonstrate  later. 

2.  The  Emotional  Flood 

Just  as  little  as  physical  energies  which  limit  one  another, 
change  into  nothing,  even  so  little  can  psychic  energies  pass 
under  the  repression  without  leaving  a trace.  We  shall  see 
a great  number  of  smooth  paths  into  which  the  banished  libido 
knows  how  to  smuggle  itself,  often  in  wonderful  disguise. 
First,  let  us  discuss  one  of  the  most  frequent:  The  contribu- 
tions made  to  the  conscious  emotional  life  from  the  unconscious 
enable  trifling  emotions  to  attain  a powerful  emphasis. 

We  must  console  ourselves  in  the  present  illumination  of 
the  dynamic  relations  to  general  considerations.  Later,  we 
shall  consider  the  particular  processes  and  laws  whereby  the 
emotional  flood  appears. 

The  emotional  investment  can  affect  any  functions  or  values. 
There  is  no  emotionally  toned  performance,  no  valuation  which 
may  not  suffer  from  conditions  of  the  complex,  either  a loss 
or  an  overemphasis,  that  is,  an  exaggerated  emotional  emphasis 
not  appropriate  in  itself. 

I shall  begin  with  some  clear  examples  which  deal  with  the 
distribution  of  emotion  in  the  intellectual  processes. 

An  Austrian  lady  of  about  thirty  years  suddenly  began  to 
take  a passionate  interest  in  astronomy  and  to  despise  the  pre- 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  EROTICISM 


207 


viously  preferred  poetry.  She  suffered  from  migraine  in  the 
forehead  (identification  with  a Roman  heroine  who,  because  of 
an  unhappy  marriage,  shot  herself),  from  anxiety  in  tunnels 
and  from  vaginal  pains  which,  according  to  the  report  of  a 
woman  gynecologist,  were  hysterically  maintained  under  the 
pretext  of  a scar.  The  lady  married  without  love.  Towards 
her  physically  and  mentally  superior  husband,  whom  she  re- 
vered and  admired,  she  acted  erotically  cold  but  was  secretly 
passionate  toward  a strikingly  ugly  man.  As  a young  girl, 
she  had  loved  a handsome  youth  whom  she  could  not  marry ; 
since  then,  she  has  fallen  in  love  with  several  amazingly  homely 
men.  Before  the  appearance  of  her  passion  for  astronomy,  she 
had  dismissed  the  last  of  her  friends.  The  star  science  was 
preferred  because  it  had  nothing  to  do  with  eroticism. 

Another  lady  living  in  ungratifying  wedlock  fled  into  pos- 
tage-stamp collecting  to  which  she  applied  herself  until  late 
at  night  if  she  would  assure  herself  of  rest.  This  same  neuro- 
tic individual  had  a dread  of  long  snails  and  earth-worms  while 
she  handled  without  discomfort  small  snails  and  other  creep- 
ing things.  She  could  not  eat  meat,  especially  unsmoked  meat, 
but  had  a predilection  for  white  orange  peel  and  other  indiges- 
tible food.  T leave  it  for  the  reader  to  interpret  these  pheno- 
mena. To  him  who  has  worked  analytically  with  symbols,  this 
presents  no  mystery. 

Frequently,  the  repressed  eroticism  escapes  into  eroticism 
in  highly  refined  form  but  directed  toward  another  object  than 
the  real  one.  A young  lady  of  twenty-three  years  fell  in  love 
with  her  nurse  so  intensely  during  a short  illness  that  she  be- 
came cold  toward  her  fiance  and  all  other  male  friends  and 
relatives.  She  wept  when  the  deaconess  was  long  engaged 
with  other  patients.  After  her  recovery,  she  thought  day  and 
night  only  of  the  admired  nurse.  The  latter  was  neither  par- 
ticularly pretty  nor  charming  in  manner.  Rather  she  was 
distinguished  by  an  almost  austere  nature  and  also  by  a strong 
will.  At  the  first  meeting  she  seemed  surly  so  that  our  pa- 
tient felt  almost  hurt.  To  offset  this,  however,  she  proved 
trustworthy  and  well-meaning.  The  passion  blazed  up  when 


208 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


the  apparently  disagreeable  sister  softly  approached  the  pa- 
tient ’s  bed  at  night  and  looked  after  her.  The  young  girl  had 
felt  since  her  childhood  that  she  was  slighted  by  her  mother. 
In  her  mother,  she  missed  the  constancy,  reliability  in  keeping 
secrets  entrusted  to  her  and  real  tenderness  expressed  in 
deeds.  The  sweet  endearments  of  the  mother  have  become 
repulsive  to  her.  The  deaconess  makes  a contrasting  mother- 
substitute:  behind  the  austerity  of  the  person  playing  the 
mother,  lurks  trustworthiness  and  good  intention.  In  the 
nurse,  the  longed-for  mother  is  loved,  the  libido  set  free  from 
the  mother  comes  to  her.  In  addition,  the  sister  exemplified 
the  virtues  which  the  girl  wished  for  herself. 

The  will,  too,  can  be  chosen  as  carrier  of  feelings  from  the 
unconscious.  He  who  is  charged  in  this  way,  feels  himself 
seized  by  a demand  for  activity  which  is  enigmatical  to  him 
who  despises  the  subliminal  region. 

I analyzed  a man  aged  thirty-nine  who  showed  interesting 
religious  phenomena.  From  a boy  up,  possessed  of  strong 
sexual  needs,  he  hoped  to  find  peace  in  marriage.  His  wife, 
however,  refused  in  the  first  years  of  wedded  life  to  bear 
children  and  caused  her  husband  to  practice  coitus  interruptus. 
After  a short  time,  his  inclination  toward  nature-cure  methods, 
to  which  he  had  previously  been  moderately  attached,  became 
passionate,  indeed  even  fanatical.  He  bought  about  one  hun- 
dred books  on  the  subject  and  had  for  other  things  only  slight 
interest.  To  my  question  put  after  this  report,  “Of  what  were 
you  thinking?”  I received  the  answer:  “In  all  things,  one 
must  carry  on  things  normally.”  This  answe?  awakened,  in 
the  connection  named,  a surmise  which  I kept  to  myself  for 
the  time  being.  I heard  further  that  after  some  years  the  wife 
became  reconciled  to  normal  intercourse.  Immediately,  the 
cult  of  nature-healing  ceased,  to  recur  again  after  the  birth 
of  the  first  child  when  the  former  bad  habit,  the  immediate 
cause  of  countless  anxiety  neuroses  and  hysterias,  because  the 
sexuality  was  again  inhibited,  was  resumed. 

An  example  of  increased  emphasis  on  the  religious  life,  we 
noted  above  (92).  Further  cases  will  come  to  notice. 


EMOTIONAL  OUTBURSTS  £09 

When  a young  girl  appears  very  sentimental  and  is  charac- 
terized by  excessive  use  of  adjectives  and  by  exaggerated  sweet-, 
ness,  she  is  as  a rule  hysterical  and  incapable  of  a great  and 
true  love.  Such  natures  can  stimulate  like  personalities  who 
suffer  similarly  from  a kind  of  “psychic  diabetes,”  to  ardent 
love  and  themselves  rave  in  love  until  the  real  demands  of  life 
begin,  when  all  has  vanished. 

Whenever  the  educator  sees  such  emotional  outbursts  appear 
without  external  cause,  he  may  conclude  with  infallible  cer- 
tainty that  there  is  a previous  repressive  process. 

The  emotional  flood  shows  us  a reinforcement  of  certain  emo- 
tions by  other  emotions  foreign  to  them.  If  the  repression 
ceases  or  if  the  falsification  of  the  emotions  is  explained,  the 
delusion  dissolves.  The  person  on  whom  we  transposed  emo- 
tions really  belonging  to  another  then  becomes  of  no  account 
to  us.  Following  the  flood,  comes  the  ebb,  following  the  erotic 
ecstasy,  comes  erotic  desolation.  The  person  who  was  hotly 
loved  yesterday,  may  have  become  of  no  importance  to-day  if 
the  delusion  has  vanished.  Further,  the  emotional  flood  causes 
much  unhappiness  especially  when,  under  its  influence,  im- 
portant decisions  are  made,  for  instance,  a marriage  contract 
(see  page  197) . Many  times,  the  repression  lasts  for  a lifetime 
and  the  emotion  which  happened  like  a cuckoo’s  egg  remains 
unchanged.  It  may  happen  that  a man  devotes  to  his  wife  all 
the  time  the  affects  which  really  belong  to  his  mother.  Certain 
it  is  that  all  persons  carry  within  themselves  many  such  erro- 
neously harbored  emotions  while  all  education  and  the  entire 
higher  civilized  life  rests  in  part  on  such  invaders  which  came 
from  the  land  of  the  unconscious  and  were  falsely  assigned  to 
this  or  that  post  in  our  consciousness. 

3.  The  Transposition  of  Emotion 

The  investigation  of  certain  striking  emotional  amplifications 
which  are  not  explainable  by  conscious  processes,  (only  those 
of  this  kind  are  under  discussion)  revealed  to  us  the  fact  that 
that  kind  of  phenomena  may  be  interpreted  as  the  influx  of 
another  repressed  process. 


210  THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 

This  transposition  of  affects  is  violently  assailed  by  oppo- 
nents of  psychoanalysis.  Kronfeld  assumes  that  Freud  de- 
duced this  conception  from  a definite  theory  concerning  “the 
nature  of  the  associative  explanation  of  psychic  events”  and 
other  hypothetical  constructions.*  With  the  aim  of  contra- 
dicting, he  engages  in  logical  discussions  concerning  psycho- 
logical principles.  Over  the  psychological  facts  brought  for- 
ward by  Freud,  which  must  be  and  are  known  to  him,!  he  does 
not  trouble  himself.  Still  less  does  he  interrogate  reality  as 
to  whether  the  transposition  asserted  by  Freud  and  the  im- 
posing company  of  his  adherents,  occurs.  With  him  who  re- 
fuses to  exercise  his  own  observation,  knowledge  gained  from 
experience  is  not  to  be  discussed.  The  opponents  of  Galileo 
refused  to  look  through  his  telescope ; a certain  Mr.  Bouilland, 
on  March  11,  1878,  sprang  at  the  throat  of  the  physicist,  Du 
Moueel,  who  introduced  the  phonograph  and  called  him  a 
lying  ventriloquist.  On  Sept.  30, 1878,  the  same  Mr.  Bouilland 
“after  a thorough  trial  Of  the  Edison  apparatus,”  explained 
the  pretended  invention  to  be  a swindle,  for  one  could  not 
assume  that  such  a measly  bit  of  metal  could  reproduce  the 
noble  tone  of  the  human  voice.J 

He  who  is  inclined  to  overcome  the  aversion  which  clings 
to  all  of  us  toward  things  which  are  at  first  mysterious — and 
I include  Kronfeld  also  with  these  seekers  after  truth — may 
reconcile  himself  with  the  results  described  below.  We  will 
permit  ourselves  to  be  warned  once  more  by  the  critics  to 
avoid  hasty  hypotheses.  Proceeding  from  the  facts,  we  shall 
accord  to  theoretic  construction  only  so  much  place  and  right 
as  is  unconditionally  necessary  for  the  gaining  of  a causal 
connection.  The  assumptions  stated  provisionally  we  shall 
abandon  every  time  that  new  experiences  contradict  them. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  transpositions  of  emotion  in 
a considerable  number  of  cases.  In  the  last  section,  we  spoke 
of  overemphasized  pleasure  in  astronomy,  postage-stamps,  in 
a nurse,  in  nature  cure,  that  is,  pleasure  which  cannot  be  ex- 

* Kronfeld,  p.  61.  f Same,  p.  44. 

\ Kemmerich,  Kultur-Kuriosa. 


TRANSPOSITION  OF  EMOTION 


211 


explained  from  the  value  of  the  object  itself.  Earlier,  we 
recognized  Scheffel’s  “Ekkehard”  as  a remedy  for  clucking 
(34),  washing  became  a great  ceremony  (68),  machines, 
horses,  the  nose,  legs  of  doves  and  children,  cockroaches  as- 
sumed the  character  of  fearful  objects  (68,  122,  103),  a rub- 
ber tire  and  a clamp  which  held  a bicycle  pump  attained  ir- 
resistible attraction  (76),  a kitten  and  gas  mantle  stimulated 
the  pleasure  in  aggression  with  obsessional  force  (77),  the 
figure  of  Jesus  became,  as  result  of  unfortunate  love,  invested 
with  enormous  emotion  which  disappeared  after  the  disap- 
pearance of  that  deficiency  in  love  (92),  sympathy  assumed 
a pathological  degree  (102),  a moderate  scarcity  of  available 
dwellings  became  the  destroyer  of  life’s  happiness  (109),  the 
Madonna  gained  the  character  of  a beneficent  goddess  of  love 
(136).  The  sight  of  a funeral  procession  led  to  an  obsessional 
idea  (144),  the  mouth  of  a brother  attained  irresistible  attrac- 
tive force  (159),  the  eye  became  the  female  sexual  symbol 
(160),  harmless  wool  and  silk  developed  into  untouchable,  hor- 
rible objects  (182). 

Whoever  has  done  analytic  work  for  any  length  of  time  is 
not  confused  by  dozens,  perhaps  hundreds  of  observations. 
But  I am  almost  afraid  of  tiring  the  reader  by  further  cases. 
Still,  the  fear  of  facts  displayed  by  certain  critics,  on  whose 
fairness  I place  great  hopes,  may  serve  as  my  excuse  for  pre- 
senting for  consideration  a few  more  observations. 

The  sixteen  year  old  girl  mentioned  on  page  160,  who,  while 
knitting,  feared  to  stick  herself  in  the  eyes,  had  a similar 
phobia  two  years  earlier.  She  feared  for  a period  of  several 
weeks  when  she  lay  in  bed  to  strike  against  the  bedside  table. 
If  she  turned  toward  the  wall,  her  anxiety  did  not  become  less. 
[Put  your  mind  on  the  table.]  “Nothing.”  [Put  more  at- 
tention on  it.]  “I  was  anxious  then  because  I knew  from 
comrades  that  something  would  soon  happen  to  me.  I was 
fearfully  ashamed  of  this  and  thought  if  only  no  one  would 
notice  it.  I wished  to  give  no  offence.  Yet  I put  the  matter 
out  of  my  head.”  We  understand  now  why  the  bedside  table 
was  feared : it  is  the  article  which  gives  offence. 


212 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Another  girl  aged  fourteen  and  one  half  years,  had  for  a 
number  of  years  had  a pathological  fear  of  beetles.  When  she 
saw  one,  she  betrayed  the  most  violent  agitation.  All  possible 
suggestions  had  been  tried  to  free  the  girl  from  her  phobia  by 
educational  influences  but  without  result.  Even  a soothsayer 
had  tried  her  skill  and  brutally  compelled  the  little  one  to  touch 
a painted  beetle;  naturally,  the  anxiety  only  increased.  The 
analysis  attempted  at  first  to  define  the  symptom  more  clearly. 
It  turned  out  that  the  skin  of  the  beetle  inspired  her  with 
greatest  horror  (see  page  122,  the  masculine  counterpart). 
Then  appeared  the  anxiety  that  the  animal  might  crawl  up  her 
back  or  be  injured  on  its  thin  wing  membranes.  Finally,  the 
chief  determinants  appeared:  the  little  girl  had  been  shame- 
fully seduced  by  a servant  maid  and  her  lover.  Both  in- 
structed the  child  in  improper  acts  and  assured  her  that  she 
would  have  a tickling  sensation  as  if  beetles  were  crawling 
on  her  body,  which  the  child  found  interesting.  Further,  they 
explained  the  significance  of  the  hymen  to  her.  In  the  be- 
ginning, they  made  the  child  drunk  when  they  indulged  their 
appetites,  later,  they  let  her  look  on  unceremoniously.  After 
repression  of  the  masturbation,  the  anxiety  appeared  which 
we  have  already  met  so  often  as  expression  of  dammed-up 
sexual  desire  and  attached  itself  to  the  idea  of  beetles.  The 
girl  often  imagined  that  she  lay  decaying  in  the  grave  while 
beetles  crawled  about  on  her.  The  phobia  diminished  at  once 
but  returned  as  result  of  later  severe  sexual  irritation,  where- 
upon an  infantile  stage  of  the  phobia  was  discovered  (227). 

Freud  long  ago  pointed  out  that  anxiety  which  has  become 
free,  the  sexual  origin  of  which  is  not  remembered,  changes 
to  the  general  fear  of  animals,  thunderstorms,  darkness,  etc.* 
Thus  is  often  explained  the  vertigo  on  stairs  and  near  preci- 
pices. I once  climbed  a mountain  in  company  with  a patient 
aged  twenty-two  years ; the  mountain  was  crowned  by  a terrace 
with  a splendid  outlook.  My  patient  kept  himself  eight  or 
ten  steps  from  the  balustrade  and  explained  that  he  was  sub- 
ject to  extreme  vertigo.  I bade  him  (experimentally)  to 

* Freud,  Die  Abwehr-Neuropsychosen.  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  53. 


TRANSPOSITION  OF  FEELING  OF  GUILT  213 


practice  self-control  but  in  spite  of  evident  effort,  be  was  held 
back.  Then  I commanded  him  to  reflect  upon  what  we  had 
found  in  probing  his  anxiety  in  the  presence  of  machines  and 
horses  (68)  and  left  him  to  himself.  Some  seconds  later,  he 
stood  beside  me  and  quietly  looked  into  the  abyss.  How  are 
we  to  interpret  such  experiences  if  we  deny  that  a sexually 
conditioned  affect  of  anxiety  which  has  arisen  elsewhere,  re- 
inforced the  insignificant  asexual  excitement  ? 

Of  pedagogic  interest  is  the  transposition  of  the  feeling  of 
guilt.  The  pupil  described  on  pages  31  and  102  had  stolen 
from  his  mother  since  he  was  six  years  old  without  having  any 
remorse  from  so  doing.  At  this  point,  he  allowed  himself  to 
be  seduced  to  onanism  which  he  practised  a single  time  in 
the  morning  before  school.  From  that  time,  the  sexual  com- 
plex expressed  itself  in  automatisms:  For  three  weeks,  he 
experienced  every  morning  an  automatic  sexual  act.  To 
the  onanistic  activity,  he  ascribed  no  significance,  on  the 
other  hand,  since  the  slip  into  masturbation,  his  conscience 
has  tormented  him  violently  over  the  thefi  Here  we  see 
the  sexual  anxiety  transposed  to  another  reaction  of  con- 
science. 

There  is  not  only  crossing  of  affects  but  also  such  an  one  of 
emotions.  One  sees  this  best  in  a series  of  transpositions.  I 
will  be  content  with  a clear  example : A sixteen-year-old  girl 
was  brought  for  my  pastoral  treatment  because  of  pathological 
grief,  refractoriness  to  most  housework,  unmannerly  behavior 
toward  parents  and  melancholia.  The  sadness  broke  out  con- 
tinually in  the  society  of  children  when  any  love-song  was 
sung  or  danced.  It  was  plainly  evident  that  behind  this,  an 
affair  of  childhood  lurked : When  twelve  years  old,  the  little 
girl  was  in  love  and  had  been  compelled  in  brusque  manner 
under  harmful  reproaches  to  send  her  friend  away.  (During 
the  grief  which  compelled  violent  weeping,  she  did  not  think 
of  that  event.)  From  the  time  of  the  departure  of  the  friend, 
she  hated  the  God  of  love  whom  she  had  named  as  protector 
of  her  tender  covenant.  This  did  not,  however,  prevent  her 
from  praying  passionately  to  the  creative  power,  but  of  God 


214 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


she  would  know  nothing  at  all  since  the  Bible  said  that  God 
is  love  and  love  was  loathsome  to  her. 

The  distaste  for  housework  led  to  a great  surprise.  I asked : 
‘ ‘ Do  you  hate  all  housework  ? ’ * and  received  the  reply : “Yes, 
all.”  [Do  you  hate  any  particular  work  more  than  the  rest?] 
“Yes.  The  most  distasteful  to  me  is  dusting,  setting  in  order, 
cutting  the  flowers  and  caring  for  canary  birds.”  [What  do 
you  do  less  unwillingly?]  “I  am  glad  to  set  the  table,  make 
the  beds,  water  the  flowers  and  run  errands.”  [Thus,  it  is 
cleaning  work  which  excites  you  mostly  to  misbehavior?] 
“Certainly.  But  no,  the  flowers!”  [What  do  you  do  with 
them ?]  “I  must  cut  off  the  ends  of  the  stems  because  the  sap- 
canals  are  stopped  up.” 

Here,  the  girl  became  greatly  embarrassed.  I knew  that  she 
had  suffered  since  earliest  childhood  from  severe  constipation 
which  had  been  combated  with  enemata  and  countless  laxa- 
tives. Immediately,  the  girl  grasped  the  connection  between 
the  difficulty  of  bodily  purification  and  household  cleaning 
work.  How  the  causal  connection  is  to  be  considered,  we  can- 
not now  say.  Enough,  the  stubborn  little  one  yielded  her  anal- 
erotic  gain  of  pleasure  from  enemata  and  hardened  masses  of 
feces  and  therewith  also  the  symbolic  expression  of  this  re- 
pressed desire,  the  aversion  to  cleaning  work  and  was  changed 
with  little  trouble  and  to  the  astonishment  of  her  family,  into 
a proper,  industrious  little  house-mother  and  reverent,  obedi- 
ent little  daughter. 

Further,  the  resentment  transposed  from  love  (and  from  the 
father)  upon  God  disappeared  very  soon,  together  with  the 
pathological  sadness  and  the  girl  confessed  great  joy  in  the 
Christian  God  of  love. 

The  girl  felt  entirely  well  for  three  months.  Then  her 
mother  wished  that  the  child  might  be  freed  from  another  bad 
habit  which  dated  back  many  years.  She  was  fond  of  tearing 
the  skin  from  her  thumb.  I knew,  naturally,  what  this  habit 
betrayed,  especially  as  the  mother  reported  that  her  trying 
child  had  masturbated  when  eight  years  old.  From  extra 


SYMBOLISMS 


215 


caution  and  because  the  religious  ethical  relations  left  nothing 
more  to  be  desired,  I refused  to  treat  this  symptom  although 
I must  have  known  at  that  time  that  I was  going  out  of  the 
way  of  my  pedagogic  duty.  A far  more  skilled  neurologist 
than  myself,  to  whom,  however,  my  patient  brought  no  frank- 
ness, succeeded  in  overcoming  the  obsessional  movement  by 
exceedingly  arduous  work.  Yet  scarcely  had  it  ceased  than 
the  girl  began  to  eat  raw  carrots  with  ravenous  appetite.  With 
enthusiastic  gestures  and  exaggerated  emotional  expressions, 
she  described  the  sweetness  of  carrots.  Encouraged  by  the 
physician’s  example,  I allowed  the  little  one  to  find  the  sexual 
meaning  of  carrots,  their  symbolical  identification  with  the 
finger,  whereupon,  the  ravenous  desire  disappeared. 

Somewhat  later,  during  a violin  concert,  there  awoke  an 
ardent  desire  to  learn  to  play  this  instrument.  Asked  for  the 
motive,  she  openly  confessed  that  she  connected  a curious  feel- 
ing with  the  wish.  She  wished  a violin,  for  as  she  remarked 
with  enraptured,  plainly  erotic,  facial  expression,  “One  can 
put  so  much  into  it.  ’ ’ Whoever  is  familiar  with  Swiss  children 
knows  what  fiddle  (Geige)  means  in  their  jargon.  When  the 
eager  little  daughter  accompanied  by  her  father,  bought  the 
violin,  she  began  suddenly  after  a long  remission  to  pull  off  the 
skin  on  her  finger  again  so  that  even  the  most  skeptical  person 
must  see  how  this  automatism,  the  desire  for  carrots  and  play- 
ing a violin,  betrayed  the  same  unconscious,  and  that  the  same 
affect  passed  over  to  the  different  ideas.  The  pulling  at  the 
skin  ceased  at  once  again,  for  one  manifestation  relieved  the 
other.  When  I showed  the  girl,  who  played  very  prettily  on  the 
piano,  the  meaning  of  her  extravagant  passion  for  the  violin, 
this  symptom  disappeared  also.* 

Are  we  now  warranted  in  speaking  of  transposition  of 
emotion  ? Let  us  state  the  two  criteria  and  postulates  of  causal 
connection  established  by  us.  As  criteria,  we  found  that  of  re- 
lationship by  content  and  that  of  constant  result.  The  syn- 
thetic postulate  ran : The  establishment  of  a causal  connection 

* Further  examples  by  Freud,  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  54. 


216 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


may  contradict  no  other  experiences  concerning  causal  connec- 
tion. The  analytic  postulate  was  that  the  dictum  must  be  as 
simple  as  possible. 

In  our  cases,  we  often  saw  an  affect,  for  example,  anxiety 
or  consciousness  of  guilt,  which  belonged  to  one  idea,  split-off 
from  it  and  appear  attached  to  another  idea.  Here,  the  causal 
criteria  and  postulates  of  causal  connection  plainly  coincide. 
At  other  times,  we  saw  an  emotion  which  would  be  enigmati- 
cal to  the  consciousness-psychology,  disappear  and  another 
similarly  inexplicable  one  appear.  We  have  already  recognized 
that  the  emotion  does  not  reappear  attached  to  any  special 
favorite  idea,  but  that  the  carrier  of  emotion  must  have  some 
relationship  (positive  or  negative)  or  even  a relation  of  ex- 
ternal association  to  the  earlier  idea.  Of  this  we  shall  have 
more  to  say  later.  Enough ! We  find  all  the  conditions  at 
hand  for  the  assumption  of  emotional  transpositions. 

The  question  may  be  asked  whether  instincts  can  also  be 
transposed.  The  fact  is  that  the  hunger  instinct,  for  instance, 
can  act  vicariously  for  the  sexual  instinct.  One  example,  we 
have  already  seen.  Inversely,  the  revulsion  against  sexuality 
may  manifest  itself  in  refusal  to  eat  in  general  or  against 
certain  foods.  Only  the  instinct  itself  is  not  transposed,  but 
the  particular  instinct  is  joined  to  certain  functions  by  the 
aid  of  particular  organs.  Rather,  we  will  say  in  accordance 
with  our  explanation  of  the  concepts,  life-force  (Lebensdrang) 
and  instinct : The  life-force  invested  in  an  activity  of  instinct 
devotes  itself,  as  a result  of  a repression,  to  another  activity. 
Therefore,  instead  of  speaking  of  a transposition  of  instinct, 
we  speak  more  correctly  of  a reversal  or  transposition  of  life- 
force. 

Likewise,  we  consider  the  transference  of  emotion  and  af- 
fect as  “new  canalization”  of  the  life-force.  Only  in  this  way, 
does  it  become  comprehensible  to  us  how  mathematics  or  re- 
ligion may  attain  an  increase  in  emphasis  as  a result  of  sexual 
repression. 

The  transposition  of  emotions  and  affects  is  also  an  every- 
day phenomenon  among  healthy  individuals  so  that  Kron- 


TRANSPOSITION  OF  EMOTION 


217 


f eld’s  denial  of  its  existence  surprised  me.  Bleuler  recalls 
the  familiar  phenomenon  that  the  angry  person  is  inclined  to 
destroy  things  which  are  quite  innocent  of  his  affect;  “the 
woman  unhappy  in  marriage  takes  out  her  anger  on  the  servant 
maid;  she  herself  knows  not  at  all  the  real  cause  of  her  dis- 
satisfaction with  her  husband  and  seeks  it  in  the  conduct  of 
the  maid.”  * To  what  teacher  are  similar  smuggling  of  affects 
unknown  ? One  strikes  the  sack  and  means  the  donkey,  one  ad- 
mires the  beautiful  toilette  and  transfers  the  admiration  to 
the  wearer,  the  old  rheumatic  patient  transfers  his  rage  over 
the  pain  upon  the  innocent  cat.  Is  that  really  so  absolutely 
new  that  Freud  should  be  called  theorist  and  juggler  of  terms? 

Even  the  preanalytic  psychology,!  which  certainly  no  one 
will  accuse  of  any  too  keen  perception,  has  noticed  something 
related  to  transposition  of  emotion.  Hoffding  observes  that 
the  same  things  and  circumstances  seem  quite  different  to  us 
according  to  our  various  moods.  He  formulated  the  state- 
ment: “The  emotion  does  not  change  immediately  with  the 
ideas  hut  spreads  over  the  new  ideas,  even  if  these  bear  no  re- 
lation to  that  which  caused  the  emotion.”  t This  “expansion 
of  emotion”  is  something  different  from  the  transposition  by 
which  the  previous  carrier  of  emotion  is  unburdened.  Never- 
theless, it  approaches  the  phenomenon  described  by  us.  In 
Wundt’s  three-volume  standard  work,  I could  not  discover 
even  this  much  consideration  of  the  poor  emotional  processes. 
On  the  other  hand,  Witasek  recognizes  an  emotional  transfer- 
ence of  which  he  gives  good  examples:  “An  object  which  re- 
minds me  of  a person  dear  to  me,  becomes  likewise  dear  and 
precious,  no  matter  how  worthless  it  may  be  in  itself.  A place 
in  which  I may  once  have  undergone  a really  disagreeable 
scene,  inspires  me  at  once  when  I come  upon  it  again,  with  a 
mild  discomfort,  even  if  I do  not  recall  that  scene  at  all 

* Bleuler,  Die  Psychoanalyse  Freuds,  Jahrb.  II,  p.  695. 

f I would  ask  that  the  word  analytic  be  understood  as  psychoanalytic. 
I am  far  from  asserting  that  the  prefreudian  psychology  did  not  analyze 
at  all,  it  has  really  produced  a series  of  such  works,  from  which 
psychoanalysis  itself  has  made  grateful  use. 

t H.  Hoffding,  Psychologie,  Leipzig,  1893,  p.  417. 


218 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


clearly.’ **  Ebbinghaus  also  calls  tbe  attachment  between 
emotions  and  sensations  and  ideas,  a free  one;  he  recalls  that 
to  a person  on  a bitter  winter  day,  everything  feels  gray,  while 
on  a pleasant  spring  day  everything  seems  rosy.f  But  in- 
stead of  going  into  the  conditions  of  these  variations  in  emo- 
tion in  detail,  he  makes  use  of  the  vague  statement  that  the 
particular  nature  of  the  emotions  which  attach  themselves  to 
sensations  and  ideas  is  outside  the  content  of  those  influencing 
the  relation  of  the  objective  emotional  causes  in  the  weal  and 
woe  of  the  mind.t  Storring,  in  his  investigations  concerning 
the  approval  and  disapproval  in  volition,  develops  the  view 
that  emotional  states  which  have  appeared  in  the  experience 
of  more  remote  effects  of  the  will,  may  be  transferred  to  the 
idea  of  a nearer  effect  of  the  same ; ||  his  whole  teaching  of  the 
summation-centers  of  emotions,  so  important  for  pedagogy, 
rests  on  transposition  of  emotion.  Under  summation-centers, 
he  understands  “intellectual  processes  (ideas  and  judgments), 
to  which  in  the  course  of  life,  a great  number  of  emotional  states 
have  attached  themselves,  so  that  with  the  reproduction  of 
such  ideas  and  the  reappearance  of  such  judgments,  emotional 
experiences  from  the  most  diverse  temporal  divisions  of  the 
life  come  to  re-echo.  ” Thus  for  the  individual  with  good  intel- 
lectual and  emotional  endowment,  the  idea  of  the  parents,  then 
perhaps  the  idea  of  a friend,  the  idea  of  a life  companion  and 
in  a religious  individual,  the  idea  of  God  would  become  sum- 
mation-centers of  emotion.  I say:  for  the  individual  with 
good  intellectual  and  emotional  endowment,  for  the  emotional 
states  which  have  attached  themselves  in  the  course  of  life 
to  those  ideas  and  judgments,  are,  as  one  may  easily  see,  set 
free  only  in  smallest  part  or  not  at  all  by  the  ideas  or  judg- 
ments themselves,  but  are  rather  only  transferred  upon  these 

* Witasek,  Grundlinien  d.  Psych,  p.  340. 

t H.  Ebbinghaus,  Abriss  der  Psychologic,  3rd  ed.  (Durr)  Leipzig, 
1910,  p.  78  f. 

t Same,  p.  79.  Compare  Ebbinghaus-Diirr,  Grundzuge  d.  Psych.  I,  p. 
562. 

||  G.  Storring,  Moralphilos.  Streitfragen,  Leipzig,  1903,  I,  p. 
57. 


INTELLECTUAL  MANIFESTATIONS  219 


ideas.*  In  this  statement,  a transposition  of  emotion  is  cor- 
rectly described.  Psychoanalysis  added  only  the  important  in- 
vasion of  repressed,  thus  unconscious,  emotional  energies  and 
showed  that  the  transplantation  takes  place  also  upon  very 
much  more  remote  ideas.  Psychology  which  preceded  psycho- 
analysis has  recognized  irradiation  but  not  the  transposition 
of  emotion  in  its  significance. 

B.  INTELLECTUAL  MANIFESTATIONS 
1.  Reductions  ( Anesthesia , Inattention,  Amnesia). 

Like  emotions,  intellectual  processes  may  also,  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  be  inhibited,  weakened  or  completely  frus- 
trated. 

(a)  Anesthesia.  How  an  organ  of  special  sense  can  be 
deprived  of  its  functional  capacity,  was  shown  in  a sufficient 
number  of  examples.  I described  complex-occasioned  limita- 
tions or  entire  loss  of  sensation  of  sight  (31,  175),  hearing 
(96),  tactile  sensation  in  the  toe  (176).  By  far  the  most 
frequent  phenomenon  of  this  kind  is  the  sexual  anesthesia  in 
women,  which  has  such  a fateful  effect  and  devastates  so  many 
marriages.  That  it  depends  almost  always  upon  repression 
and  fixation,  no  one  can  deny,  who  investigates  the  unconscious 
of  persons  afflicted  by  it  and  eliminates  the  absence  of  sensa- 
tion, which  is  often  a very  difficult  task ; the  treatment  of  this 
condition  need  not  be  described  in  this  pedagogic  book.  It  is 
sufficient  that  the  educator  should  know  that  this  very  serious 
evil  depends  on  injurious  influences  which  a correct  education 
can  avoid.  In  isolated  observations,  I found  what  Sadger 
asserts:  “From  my  psychoanalytic  results  among  sexually 
anesthetic  women,  I can  assert  that  without  exception  the  basis 
of  lack  of  sexual  feeling  is  formed  by  incestuous  thoughts  of 
the  father  which  awakened  at  the  time  of  puberty  and  then 
immediately  underwent  the  sharpest  suppression,  that  is,  were 
completely  forgotten.  ” t In  other  cases,  the  sexuality  has 

* Same,  p.  123. 

t J-  Sadger,  Aus  d.  Liebesleben  Nicolaus  Lenaus,  Leipzig  and  Vienna, 
1909,  p.  9. 


220 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


been  rendered  loathsome  as  a whole  or  the  husband  was  not 
really  loved. 

(b)  Inattention.  It  is  a known  fact  that  one  overlooks  un- 
loved persons  much  easier  than  loved  ones.  A striking  ex- 
ample of  inattention  or  overlooking  is  the  following.  A man 
of  middle  age  discovered  some  years  ago  that  he  could  no  longer 
see  the  waning  moon,  while  he  often  enjoyed  watching  the 
growing  stars.  He  often  undertook  to  look  at  the  vanishing 
sickle  but  in  spite  of  all  resolutions,  the  attempt  failed,  since 
he  regularly  forgot  his  intention  although  every  week  in  win- 
ter, he  had  to  make  a long  journey  at  night  just  before  sunrise. 
The  analysis  revealed  the  reason : The  fugitive  from  the  moon 
has  a secret  dread  of  every  symbol  of  age  and  death.  The 
waning  moon  reminds  him  of  his  own  decline.  The  deeper 
motives  remained  hidden  to  him  since  he  refused  analysis. 
Thus  he  caught  a glimpse  of  the  waning  moon  only  twice  in 
the  course  of  four  years. 

(c)  Amnesia.  In  the  example  just  quoted,  we  have  ob- 
served besides  the  inadvertency,  an  amnesia,  in  that  the  resolu- 
tion to  look  for  the  waning  moon  was  always  forgotten. 
Naturally,  most  forgetting  depends  on  complexes.  A repres- 
sion in  our  sense  does  not  take  place,  even  though  the  nar- 
rowness of  consciousness  and  the  limitation  of  capacity  for 
reproduction  constantly  make  a separation.  On  a basis  of 
analytic  experiences,  we  conclude  that  there  is  a barring  by 
resistance  only  where  the  forgetting  is  particularly  striking. 

A normal  acquaintance  in  the  home  of  a distant  relative  was 
asked  for  the  address  of  his  mother  when  to  his  astonishment, 
he  could  not  recall  the  name  of  the  street,  although  he  used  it 
every  few  days  and  frequently  wrote  it  on  letters.  The  analy- 
sis showed  the  forgetter  that  the  first  syllable  of  the  lost  word 
was  the  same  as  the  name  of  his  brother’s  fiancee.  The  mother 
furthered  the  engagement  and  often  invited  the  young  lady 
to  her  dwelling.  Now,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  forgetful  one, 
the  engagement  has  been  broken.  The  latter,  at  the  solicita- 
tion of  his  mother,  went  to  the  seldom-visited  relatives  in  whose 
presence  the  forgetting  occurred.  The  relationship-complex 


ANALYSIS  OF  FORGETTING 


221 


was  constellated  by  the  vocation.  The  memory  of  the  familiar 
street  name  remained  absent  because  of  the  painful  emotion 
which  would  have  cropped  out  in  this  situation. 

Above  (181,  211),  we  mentioned  a girl  whose  little  brother 
burned  himself  in  the  laundry  and  who  completely  forgot  the 
tragic  event  but  remembered  exactly  how,  shortly  before,  she 
sat  on  the  steps  and  played  with  the  child. 

A young  lady  visited  a book-store  to  buy  “Niels  Lyhne”  by 
Jakobsen.  To  her  astonishment,  she  could  not  think  of  the 
author’s  name.  In  its  place,  Petersen  popped  up,  but  she 
recognized  this  word  as  false.  In  the  analysis,  the  name  of 
the  father  of  an  editor  friend  came  into  her  mind,  which 
directed  her  to  Jakobsen.  That  person  was  an  intelligent  but 
pedantic  man  who  prevented  his  son  from  developing  his  poetic 
talent.  Jakobsen  likewise  had  to  struggle  to  utilize  his  en- 
dowment. The  young  lady  was  herself  a poetess  and  suffered 
from  a pedantic  father  who  hindered  her  mental  development. 
She  had  seen  that  her  infantile  fixation  on  the  once  deified  man 
must  be  given  up.  As  a school  girl,  she  passionately  loved  a 
cousin  considerably  older  than  herself,  who  read  to  her  an 
article  on  Jakobsen.  She  freed  herself  from  him  because  he 
was  intimate  with  a married  woman  and  turned  out  to  be 
a woman-chaser.  Finally,  she  came  upon  the  thoughts,  Peter- 
sen might  be  the  given-name  of  the  author  of  “Neils  Lyhne.” 
Peter  is  correct. 

As  motive  for  repression,  we  recognize  at  once  the  intention 
to  free  the  poet  from  his  father  as  the  girl  would  like  to  free 
herself  and  the  editor  friend  from  their  fathers.  She  makes 
him,  as  it  were,  his  own  father  by  affixing  to  his  forename,  the 
ending,  — sen.  In  addition,  the  one-time  father  substitute, 
who  wrote  the  article  on  Jakobsen,  is  refused.  Further  de- 
terminants were  not  to  be  found  since  other  matters  seemed 
more  important. 

In  very  many  psyehoneuroses,  an  important  event  is  split 
off  and  the  analysis  must  remove  a mass  of  obstacles  from 
the  way  before  the  memory  may  become  conscious.  Often  as 
we  know,  we  are  dealing  only  with  phantasies  in  which  re- 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


222 

pressed  wishes  hide.  It  is  always  amnesias,  however,  which  lie 
at  the  bottom  of  the  formation  of  neurotic  symptoms.*  Often, 
so-called  cover-memories  crowd  forward  which  the  skilled 
analyst  may  interpret  as  proof  of  a definite  trauma.  Often, 
it  may  be  said  with  absolute  certainty  that  this  or  that  must 
have  happened,  perhaps  in  one  of  the  first  years  of  life,  but 
the  person  being  analyzed  may  not  remember  it,  even  though 
the  parents  confirm  the  surmise  most  decisively. 

Very  beautiful  examples  of  forgetting  occasioned  by  repres- 
sion are  afforded  by  Freud  in  his  book,  ‘ ‘ Zur  Psychopathologie 
des  Alltagslebens.  ” t To  appreciate  them  properly,  one  must 
examine  them  in  all  their  detail.  Every  abbreviation  is  a loss. 
I will  give  therefore,  a not  less  instructive  investigation  by 
Jung:  “A  gentleman  wishes  to  recite  the  familiar  poem: 
‘ Ein  Fichtenbaum  steht  einsam,  etc.  ’ (A  figtree  stands  alone. ) 
In  the  line,  Thn  schlafert’  (He  is  sleepy),  he  was  completely 
stuck,  he  had  entirely  forgotten  ‘mit  weisser  Decke’  (with 
white  covering) . This  forgetting  in  a verse  so  familiar  seemed 
striking  to  me  and  I had  him  reproduce  what  he  associated  to 
‘mit  weisser  Decke.’  The  following  series  resulted : In  a white 
covering,  one  thinks  of  a 6hroud — a linen  cloth  with  which  a 
corpse  is  covered — (pause) — Now,  a close  friend  comes  into 
mind — his  brother  has  just  died  suddenly — he  may  have  died 
of  a heart  attack — he  was  too  corpulent — my  friend  is  also 
corpulent  and  I have  already  thought  it  might  also  happen 
to  him — he  plainly  takes  too  little  exercise — when  I heard 
of  the  sudden  death,  I suddenly  became  anxious  lest  it  might 
also  happen  to  me  since  we  in  our  family  likewise  have  a ten- 
dency to  corpulence  and  further,  my  grandfather  died  of  a 
heart  attack;  I am  also  too  corpulent  and  have  therefore  in 
the  last  few  days  started  in  with  a reduction  treatment. t 
Thus  the  gentleman  had  unconsciously  identified  himself  with 
the  figtree  which  wTas  covered  with  the  white  mantle.” 

* Freud,  Psychopathologie  d.  Alltagslebens,  p.  27. 

f Freud,  Same,  pp.  1-23. 

t Jung,  ti.  d.  Psychologie  d.  Dementia  praecox,  p.  64. 


EXAMPLES  OF  FORGETTING 


223 


Of  course  Jung  intentionally  gives  only  the  most  important 
determinants.  If  the  person  being  analyzed  were  sufficiently 
willing,  one  would  certainly  have  come  upon  an  infantile  root 
in  this  case  too. 

In  life  and  also  in  school-life,  this  simultaneous  uninten- 
tional and  intentional  forgetfulness  play  a considerable  role. 
A complicated  example,  but  one  which  affords  much  insight, 
we  gave  on  page  98  (missed  rendezvous).  When  an  analytic 
patient  forgets  the  appointed  hour,  one  never  goes  wrong  in 
concluding  that  there  is  resistance  against  the  analysis.  In  an 
evening  party,  the  host  went  into  another  room  to  get  some 
cigarettes  for  a guest.  Nevertheless,  he  forgot  his  intention, 
visited  the  sleeping  children  and  returned  without  the  desired 
articles.  A little  analysis  revealed  the  subconscious  motive 
for  this  oversight.  The  guest  owed  his  host  a small  sum  of 
money  and  the  creditor  strove  against  asking  for  it.  The  re- 
pressed wish  was  able  to  obtain  masked  expression. 

Just  as  much  which  analytic  experience  has  brought  to  light 
had  been  recognized  by  keen  observers  by  purely  empirical  and 
unscientific  means  in  isolated  cases,  so  the  forgetting  occasioned 
by  discomfort  had  not  escaped  the  attention  of  a brilliant 
discoverer.  Darwin  reports:  “When  I found  a published 
fact,  a new  observation  or  a thought,  which  contradicted  one 
of  my  general  results,  I noted  it  down  word  for  word  as  soon 
as  possible.  For  experience  has  taught  me  that  such  facts  and 
results  escape  the  memory  easier  than  those  which  are  pleasant 
to  us.  ’ ’ * 

Still  more  clearly  does  Bulwer  understand  amnesia  by  re- 
pression. He  says:  “I  repeat,  therefore,  it  is  an  example  of 
the  all-destroying  tyranny  of  everyday  life  that  whenever  a 
striking  event  disturbs  the  regular  course  of  thought  and  en- 
deavor, it  hastens  to  bury  in  its  sand  the  object  which  has  be- 
come unpleasant  to  it ; the  mind  cannot  then  push  aside  quick 
enough  a riddle  which  may  influence  the  reason  pathologically ; 
reason  seeks  to  solve  it,  . . . and  we  are  surprised  how  quickly 

* Zentralblatt,  f.  Psychoanalyse  I,  p.  614. 


224 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


such  incidents,  although  they  are  not  really  forgotten,  but  can 
be  voluntarily  recalled  again,  . . . are,  as  you  might  say, 
repressed  from  the  eye  of  the  mind.  ’ ’ * 

Darwin  and  Bulwer  thus  have  a presentiment  of  the  mechan- 
ism of  repression,  though  the  former  perhaps  did  not  realize 
the  extent  of  its  field  of  application  and  the  latter,  its  force 
which  leads  to  complete  forgetting. 

Other  examples  may  be  found  in  the  Zentralblatt  fur  Psycho- 
analyse I,  407  (Freud),  1-497  (Dr.  Alfred  Meisl),  II-84ff. 
(Dr.  Ernest  Jones),  11-632  (Dr.  Karl  Weiss),  11-650  (Dr. 
Marie  Stegmann),  III-54f.  (Dr.  Jones). 


2.  Cover-Memories 

An  extraordinarily  fane  substantiation  of  the  psychoanalytic 
exploration  rule  is  to  be  found  in  the  following  circumstance : 
when  a person  is  trying  to  recall  a forgotten  word  or  event, 
in  the  presence  of  too  strong  resistance  against  direct  repro- 
duction of  the  same  and  a stripping-off  of  the  deviations  upon 
constituent  parts  of  the  surroundings,  an  idea  comes  into 
his  mind  which  is  recognized  as  incorrect  but  which  proves, 
upon  closer  inspection,  to  be  related  to  the  missing  idea.  Many 
times  when  memory  is  strained,  an  idea  at  once  pops  up  which 
is  considered  the  right  one  but  really  is  not.  In  the  second 
case,  we  speak  of  a cover-memory,  since  consciousness  of  a real 
memory  is  produced,  while  in  the  first  instance,  only  a memory 
of  a cover  association. 

Since  none  of  my  examples  can  compare  with  those  of  Freud, 
I shall  this  time  borrow  an  illustration  from  him : Two  men, 
one  older  than  the  other,  who  had  traveled  together  six  months 
previously  in  Sicily,  were  exchanging  reminiscences  of  those 
beautiful  and  instructive  days  “What  was  the  name  of  the 
place”  asked  the  younger,  “where  we  passed  the  night  in  order 
to  join  the  party  to  Selinus?  Calatafimi,  wasn’t  it?”  The 
elder  refused  this:  “Certainly  not,  but  I too  have  forgotten 

* Reported  by  Herbert  Silberer,  Zbl.  I,  p.  443, 


ANALYSIS  OF  FORGETTING 


225 


the  name  although  I remember  very  well  all  the  details  of  our 
stay  there.  It  suffices  for  me  that  I notice  that  when  another 
has  forgotten  a name,  immediately  the  forgetting  is  induced  in 
me.  Shall  we  not  seek  the  name  ? No  other  occurs  to  me  ex- 
cept Caltanisetta  which  is  still  certainly  not  correct.”  “No,” 
says  the  younger,  “the  name  begins  with  W or  a W precedes 
it.”  “There  is  no  W in  Italian,”  replied  the  elder.  “I 
meant  V and  said  W because  I am  so  accustomed  to  it  in  my 
mother-tongue.”  The  elder  struggled  against  the  V He 
said : “I  think  I have  already  forgotten  many  Sicilian  names 
in  general;  it  would  be  timely  to  investigate.  What  is  the 
name  of  the  place  of  high  elevation  which  in  ancient  times 
was  called  ‘Enna’?  Oh,  I know  now,  Castrogiovanni.”  The 
next  moment,  the  younger  had  also  found  the  lost  name.  He 
called  out:  “Castelvetrano,”  and  rejoiced  that  the  asserted 
V could  be  proven.  The  elder  still  missed  for  awhile  'the 
feeling  of  recognition ; after  he  had  accepted  the  name,  how- 
ever, he  attempted  to  explain  how  it  had  escaped  him.  He 
said:  “Plainly,  because  the  second  half,  vetrano,  sounded  like 
veteran.  I know  already  that  I do  not  like  to  think  of  age  and 
react  in  strange  fashion  when  I am  reminded  of  it.  Thus,  for 
example,  not  long  ago  I reproached  a highly  esteemed  friend 
in  most  emphatic  words  with  being  long  past  the  years  of 
youth,  because  he  had  once  said  concerning  me  in  most  flat- 
tering words  that  ‘I  was  no  longer  a young  man.’  My  re- 
sistance to  the  second  half  of  the  name,  Castelvetrano,  pro- 
ceeded also  from  the  fact  that  the  first  sound  of  the  same  was 
inverted  in  the  substitute  word,  Caltanisetta.”  And  the  name, 
Caltanisetta,  itself?  asks  the  younger.  “That  has  always 
seemed  to  me  like  a pet  name  for  a young  woman,  ’ ’ asserted  the 
elder. 

A little  later,  he  added:  “The  name  for  ‘Enna’  was  also 
only  a substitute  name.  And  now  it  occurs  to  me  that  this 
name,  Castrogiovanni,  sounds  the  same  to  giovane-voung,  as  the 
lost  name,  Castelvetrano,  to  veteran,  old.” 

The  elder  thought  he  had  thus  given  the  reasons  for  his  for- 
getting of  the  names.  From  what  motive  the  younger  had- 


226 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


come  to  the  same  exceptional  phenomenon,  was  not  investi- 
gated.* 

In  this  beautiful  example,  various  things  are  worthy  of  note. 
At  first,  it  was  not  certain  a priori  that  the  forgetting  was 
conditioned  on  a complex  for  it  is  nothing  unusual  when,  a half 
year  after  an  extensive  journey,  the  name  of  a station  is  for- 
gotten. But  the  one  who  forgot  seems  to  have  suspected  the 
repression  and  this  is  important.  It  is  interesting,  how,  that 
after  the  incorrect  memory,  the  theme  was  left  and  transferred 
to  another.  And  yet  it  approached  the  goal.  Thus  one  pro- 
ceeds in  every  analysis.  Further,  the  circumstance  that  instead 
of  the  repressed  word  sought  for  (vetrano),  its  opposite 
cropped  out,  is  often  found.  Even  without  being  expressly 
mentioned,  the  cover  word,  “Caltanisetta”  would  be  judged  to 
have  a repressed  relation  to  a young  woman  and  indeed  a crea- 
ture as  sweet  as  ardent,  since  “Anisette”  denotes  a well  known 
liqueur  and  “calt”  contains  the  stem  from  “ealdo”  which  de- 
notes hot,  hotblooded. 

Whether  with  the  younger  man,  we  may  detect  from  ‘ ‘ Cala- 
tafimi”  an  emotional  relation  to  some  kind  of  “Galathe”  we 
shall  not  investigate. 

How  important,  a cover-memory  can  be  pedagogically,  a 
case  from  my  practice  will  show.  I treated  a girl  of  fourteen 
and  a half  years  for  melancholia,  severe  stuttering  and  anxiety 
conditions.  Even  the  first  reaction-investigation  pointed  to 
the  fact  that  the  drunken  foster-father  maltreated  the  wife 
and  children  and  had  devastated  the  youth  of  the  child.  An 
enormous  number  of  ugly  scenes  which  had  excited  the  hyster- 
ical child  came  to  expression.  The  symptoms  receded  very 
beautifully.  After  four  months  of  work  (one  to  two  hours  a 
week),  we  stumbled  on  a phantasy  which  included  the  motive 
of  the  severest  symptom,  the  stuttering. 

The  speech  disturbance  broke  out  on  her  first  school-day. 
The  child  was  terribly  afraid  of  school,  struggled  to  the  street 
and  had  to  be  carried.  Instead  of  the  stern  teacher  she  had 

* Freud,  Ein  Beitrag  zum  Vergessen  von  Eigennamen.  ZbI.  I,  p. 
407  f. 


ORIGIN  OF  A PHOBIA 


227 


been  threatened  with,  the  child  found  an  extremely  friendly 
woman  teacher ; nevertheless,  she  was  so  overcome  with  anxiety 
that  she  could  not  speak  a word.  The  girl  asserted  now  in 
the  analysis  that  she  had  imagined  at  that  time  that  beside 
every  bench  there  was  sitting  on  left  and  right  a lion  and  a tiger 
and  if  a child  arose  or  grasped  at  the  pen-box,  the  beasts  of 
prey  hurled  themselves  on  the  transgressor  to  devour  her. 

Naturally,  an  intelligent  girl  of  six  and  three  quarter  years 
can  have  had  such  an  idea  of  school  as  little  as  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  as  a suckling  in  the  cradle,  had  a phantasy  of  a vulture. 
Thus  the  phantasy  must  have  been  projected  into  that  period. 

Even  he  who  is  not  acquanted  with  the  symbolism  of  lion 
and  tiger  may  guess  the  approximate  conditions  of  affairs 
when  I make  some  further  additions.  The  child  had  suffered 
at  that  time  for  some  two  and  three  quarter  years  from  severe 
anxiety,  uttered  anxiety  cries  in  sleep  and  crept  under  the 
bed  while  asleep.  The  father  often  came  home  drunk,  late 
at  night,  the  mother  snatched  her  little  daughter  from  the 
bed  and  fled  from  the  monster  to  a neighbor’s  house.  Often, 
she  called  to  the  raging  man:  “Don’t  roar  like  a lion  or 
tiger!”  The  father  repeatedly  threatened  the  child:  “Just 
wait  until  you  come  to  a stern  teacher  in  school,  he  will  treat 
you  quite  differently  from  me!”  In  addition,  other  children 
utilized  the  child’s  anxiety  for  school  and  in  jest  related  hor- 
rible things  which  were,  however,  taken  in  earnest.  Thus  the 
school  became  the  embodiment  of  all  that  was  terrible.  The 
rough  treatment  on  the  first  school-day  brought  the  long- 
present  hysteria  to  an  open  outbreak.  How  much  suffering 
the  rough  measure  brought  on  the  girl,  from  whom,  in  her 
fifteenth  year,  no  teacher  could  entice  a word ! 

Before  1 interpreted  the  phantasy  to  the  girl,  she  afforded 
a good  substantiation  of  my  assumption.  In  the  night  follow- 
ing her  story,  she  dreamed  she  was  pursued  by  a roaring  lion 
and  an  elephant  with  uplifted  trunk.  From  both  animals 
appeared  the  figure  of  the  father. 

Unfortunately,  the  completion  of  the  analysis  did  not  occur. 
The  recovery  of  the  girl  made  splendid  progress  for  a time,  the 


228 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


stuttering,  the  headache,  anxiety  and  melancholia  disappeared 
almost  entirely.  Then  a sudden  deplorable  change  took  place 
for  the  affairs  at  home  became  wretched. 

The  father,  from  whom  the  mother  had  lived  apart  for  some 
years,  again  entered  in  his  earlier  role  of  tormentor  of  the 
family.  The  girl  was  constantly  a witness  of  the  intimacies 
of  the  parents  w'ho  slept  in  the  same  room  with  her.  The 
authorities  intervened,  the  girl  was  cared  for  elsewhere  and 
the  analysis  had  to  be  interrupted. 

We  will  later  make  the  acquaintance  of  the  lion  and  tiger 
symbols  and  therewith  our  causality  requirement  may  be  at 
least  indirectly  satisfied. 

3.  “Dcja  Vu”  ( Seen  Before ) 

Under  a “deja  vu,”  one  understands  a falsification  of  mem- 
ory in  which  the  person  thinks  he  has  already  experienced 
the  present  experience.  The  phenomenon  is  uncommonly 
widespread.  In  a mixed  class  of  twenty-four  pupils  of  seven- 
teen years  of  age,  I found  sixteen  who  had  had  it;  in  a class 
of  sixteen  boys  fifteen  years  of  age,  seven  remembered  having 
had  it.  Plato  founds  his  theory  of  the  preexistence  of  the  soul 
on  this  mysterious  experience  besides  other  grounds. 

The  analysis  explains  the  phenomenon.  Here,  only  one 
example  which  unfortunately  I cannot  show  in  its  connection 
with  other  neurotic  phenomena : It  concerns  a girl  of  thirteen 
and  three  quarter  years  who,  upon  her  entrance  into  the 
women’s  clinic,  was  struck  with  the  idea  that  she  had  certainly 
been  there  before  and  held  fast  to  this  belief  although  she  saw 
the  impossibility  of  this  assumption.  The  feeling  of  acquain- 
tanceship proceeds  from  a transposition:  The  pregnant  girl 
had  two  years  previously,  in  another  clinic,  met  a man,  swollen 
presumably  with  small-pox,  by  whom  she  was  afraid  of  being 
infected.  This  patient  she  compared  with  her  father  who  had 
once  been  similarly  sick  and  swollen.  Now  she  was  herself 
as  pregnant,  an  infected,  swollen  person,  of  course  not  by  that 
patient  or  the  father  who  was  joined  to  him  as  a unity  but 
probably  by  her  elder  brother  who  held  in  the  family  the 


HYPERMNESIA 


229 


position  of  the  father  who  was  now  dead.  Thus  far,  the  feel- 
ing of  recognition  has  its  good  ground ; only,  it  is  falsely  trans- 
ferred from  the  painful  condition  of  the  pregnant  one  to  the 
idea  of  place  instead  of  being  applied  to  the  proper  condition. 

I can  also  give  a further  determinant  of  the  deja  vu.  Asked 
to  describe  the  locality  and  give  her  associations  to  it,  the 
patient  reported:  “The  feeling  of  recognition  appeared  be- 
side a long  bench  which  stood  in  the  hall.  We  had  a similar 
one  in  the  kitchen.  Otherwise  nothing.”  [More.]  “I  re- 
member that  at  home  I was  often  teased  on  account  of  a little 
episode.  When  I was  five  years  old,  I sat  one  day  on  that 
bench,  laid  my  hands  in  my  lap  and  sighed.  The  maid  asked 
me  the  reason.  I answered:  ‘I  am  thinking  over  whom  I 
shall  later  marry.’  ” The  marriage  question  must  have  oc- 
cupied the  girl  much  during  her  pregnancy.  It  is  therefore 
very  probable  that  right  by  the  bench,  the  deja  vu  came  to 
pass.  The  scheme  familiar  to  us:  “It  is  now  as  at  that  time” 
came  into  application.* 

4.  Hypermnesia 

It  often  happens  that  an  apparently  insignificant  event  is 
held  by  the  memory  with  astounding  tenacity.  One  finds  as 
cause  that  that  reproduced  experience  bears  an  important 
analogy  at  the  moment  of  remembering  and  further  that  ad- 
ditions of  libido  have  come  to  it  by  repression.  The  girl  men- 
tioned on  page  221,  who  recalled  how  when  three  years  old  she 
played  on  the  steps  with  her  little  brother,  pushed  this  remin- 
iscence forward  because  she  wished  to  hide  the  consciousness 
of  guilt  for  spiteful  hatred.  The  picture  of  innocent  playing 
children  would  deck  the  repressed  death-wish  with  a mantle  of 
love.  Now  and  then,  a real  experience  of  slight  importance 
gains,  by  symbolic  interpretation,  an  important  value. 

Ludwig  Binswanger  has  presented  us  with  beautiful  ex- 
amples in  his  instructive  ‘ ‘ Analyse  einer  hysterisehen 

* Freud  gives  other  examples  in  his  Psychopathologie  d.  Alltagsleb. 


230 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Phobie”*  (Analysis  of  an  hysterical  phobia).  A girl- of 
twenty  years  recalled  that  when  five  and  three  quarters  years 
old,  she  saw  how  her  boot-heel  had  become  loose.  This,  in  it- 
self, certainly  insignificant  occurrence  gained  deep  importance 
from  the  fact  that  a series  of  most  important  thoughts  reposed 
in  that  idea.  The  most  powerful  longing,  the  most  intense 
remorse,  birth  phantasies,  death  wishes,  maximum  love  and 
hate,  an  unbelievably  widespread  material  was  concentrated 
in  the  separating  boot-heel. 

Other  examples  are  found  among  the  cover-memories  and 
above  on  page  41  (“Pentakosiomedimnen”),  under  Chapter 
XII,  6b : dream  of  the  Duchess  of  Angouleme,  as  wTell  as  in  my 
article:  “Kryptolalie  und  Kryptographie  bei  Normalen.”  t 

It  often  happens  also  that  an  idea  has  disappeared  from 
memory,  which  cannot  be  wondered  at  much,  but  has  reap- 
peared as  manifestation,  for  example,  as  obsessional  idea  or 
dream. 

5.  The  Regression 

If  internal  or  external  obstacles  block  the  path  of  an  active 
instinct,  the  libido  flows  backwards.  The  backward-flowing 
movement  is  called  regression.  It  appears  in  various  forms. 
It  is  always  a return  to  the  infantile  (status)  and  indeed  either 
the  material  bringing  to  life  of  juvenile  ideas,  emotions  and 
strivings  or  the  formal  renewing  of  forms  of  activity  which 
were  suitable  for  the  juvenile  stage. 

a.  The  regression  to  infantile  contents  (mental).  This  is 
often  conscious.  Persons  who  see  no  hope  before  them  and  are 
inhibited  in  their  endeavors,  busy  themselves  much  with  their 
childhood,  for  example,  persons  who  are  aged  and  seriously 
ill.  Much  more  frequent  still  is  the  subconscious  return  to 
the  first  years  of  life. 

When  we  dug  out  the  infantile  roots  of  the  neurosis,  we  saw 
old  events  in  the  significance  of  the  determinants  of  the  pres- 

* L.  Binswanger,  Analyse  einer  hyster.  Phobie,  Jahrb.  Ill,  pp.  228- 
308. 

f Jalirbuch  Y,  p.  142  ff. 


RELIGIOUS  GLOSSOLALIA 


231 


int  condition.  I described  particularly  plain  examples  in  my 
investigations  of  religious  glossolalia  and  automatic  secret 
writing.*  I give  below  the  analysis  of  the  first  speech  of  a 
religious  fanatic  aged  twenty-four.  It  runs: 

“Esin  gut  efflorien  meinosgat  schinohaz  daheit  wenes- 
gut  nar  wossalaitseh  enogaz  to  lorden  hat  wuscheuehat  meno- 
feite  lor;  si  wophantes  menelor  gut  menofeit  hi  so  met  da 
lor.” 

Most  of  the  words  call  forth  associations  without  difficulty 
which  I repeat  in  the  following  paragraphs : 

1.  [Esin.]  Nothing. 

2.  [Gut.]  My  grandfather  always  said  I was  a good  boy. 
"When  a child,  I always  had  the  word  good  (gut)  in  my  mouth, 
for  example,  good  mother,  good  apple.  (I  left  this  word  too 
quickly.) 

3.  [Efflorien.]  My  father’s  employer  once  said  he  would 
take  me  with  him  to  Florence.  That  made  me  glad.  When  I 
was  prevented,  I was  disappointed.  [Efflorien.]  Perhaps  I 
have  a dim  recollection : That  gentleman  said,  in  Florence  we 
shall  visit  the  zoo,  there  we  will  see  an  elephant.  “Eff  ” refers 
to  elephant.  The  elephant  in  Basel  is  still  fresh  in  my  mind : 
When  we  were  standing  in  front  of  him,  he  took  the  hat  off  a 
girl  and  stamped  on  it. 

4.  [Meinosgat.]  Something  quite  clear  comes  to  mind: 
When  eleven  years  old,  I lost  a very  dear  friend  by  name  of 
Oskar,  whose  death  overwhelmed  me,  so  that  I went  around 
for  awhile  like  a shadow.  [Meinosgat.]  I said  “Osgar”  not 
Oskar.  [At.]  I often  accompanied  him  to  a studio  (Atelier) 
in  which  I admired  the  beautiful  things. 

5.  [Schinohaz.]  Refers  to  my  school  time.  We  had  a 
teacher  who  beat  us  terribly  and  made  us  learn  fearfully. 
Once  I said  to  a friend:  “Der  Lehrer  tue  einem  fast  das  Herz 
‘abschinegeln.’  ” That  is  a common  expression  in  that  re- 
gion. My  friend  complained  of  me  to  the  teacher  who  gave 
me  four  blows.  “Haz”  refers  to  heart.  I was  also  fearfully 

*Jahrbueh  III,  also  separate  imprint  by  Deuticke,  Leipzig  and 
Vienna,  1912. 


232 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


tormented  by  the  boys  because  I went  to  the  meetings.  They 
persecuted  me,  fleeced  me  of  my  goods. 

6.  [Daheit.]  Perhaps  also  on  account  of  school  time.  We 
had  a new  pupil  who  was  always  saying:  “Da  heit  me  gseh’’ 
(Swiss  colloquialism  meaning  “Da  hat  man  gesehen”  = There 
was  seen),  “da  heit  me  gha”  (“gehabt”  = had),  etc.  We 
found  this  funny;  we  rushed  after  him  calling  “Da  heit,  da 
heit.”  He  turned  and  struck  me  on  the  ears. 

7.  [Wenesgut.]  My  mother  wras  always  saying,  for  in- 
stance, to  a good  report : “ If  it  goes  well,  the  father  will  give 
you  thus  and  so.”  Once  I received  from  a teacher  an  honor- 
reward  of  two  francs  for  the  best  composition,  another  time  I 
won  a first  prize  in  climbing.  More  often,  however,  it  did  not 
go  well;  in  a swimming  race,  I would  have  been  drowned  in 
the  middle  of  a pond  if  someone  had  not  helped  me.  [Nar] 
I think  that  belongs  to  the  following. 

8.  [Narwossalaitsch.]  That  is  a little  difficult.  I think  of 
everything  so  childish.  We  once  had  a visit  from  a negro  who 
spoke  his  mother  tongue.  Each  of  us  pupils  would  repeat 
something  after  him.  I was  nine  or  ten  years  old.  Perhaps 
the  word  given  (narwossalaitsch)  wTas  among  those  words.  All 
the  others  could  repeat  a little  piece,  I could  not.  I was  afraid 
of  the  negro  on  account  of  his  teeth  and  lips.  He  had  a beauti- 
ful watch  of  which  I was  very  covetous.  In  general,  I longed 
for  everything  which  I saw.  That  was  a great  vice.  I was 
often  tempted  to  steal.  Now,  no  longer. 

9.  [Enogaz.]  Might  one  associate  this  word  with  a cat? 
When  I was  eleven  years  old,  we  four  comrades  went  over  the 
country  and  came  across  a cat.  Two  put  it  in  a bag  and  ex- 
plained that  they  would  strike  and  kill  the  animal.  My  com- 
rade and  I protested  but  they  did  the  deed  nevertheless.  We 
turned  around  at  once  and  informed  the  teacher  about  it. 
[Eno.]  Might  one  not  write  that,  eine  (=one)  ? 

10.  [To  lorden  (English  expression  from  lordl.]  The 
“lord”  reminds  me  of  an  experience  from  my  thirteenth  year. 
Because  of  nervous  weakness  and  pains  in  all  the  nerves,  I had 


RELIGIOUS  GLOSSOLALIA 


233 


been  taken  out  of  school.  A distinguished  English  preacher 
came  along  and  delivered  a sermon  in  which  the  ever-recurring 
word  “lord”  struck  me.  He  spoke  also  of  the  Lord  Mayor  of 
London  and  his  splendor.  The  latter,  he  compared  with  the 
glory  of  heaven.  This  impressed  me  powerfully.  I read  also 
in  a newspaper  of  a lord.  My  mother  taught  me,  however, 
that  God  is  greater  than  all  the  lords  of  England.  I dreamed 
from  that,  that  I also  possessed  that  splendor. 

11.  [Hat.]  I think  that  word  stands  for  itself.  My 
grandfather  took  me  once  into  a church  tower.  While  he  was 
ringing  the  bell,  the  clapper  struck  me  on  the  head  and  I was 
almost  killed.  Hereupon,  I was  dismissed  with  a stick.  That, 
I have  always  before  my  eyes.  [Hat.]  I think  of  “hat” 
as  “hat  gethan”  (have  as  have  done).  (Postscript  five 
months  later:  Evil  mouths  persecuted  me  at  the  time  of  the 
speaking  with  tongues,  but  their  effort  reached  me  not.) 

12.  [Wuschenehat.]  Wusch  means  wash.  We  had  a ser- 
vant maid  whose  name  reminds  me  of  the  second  and  third 
syllables  of  the  word.  Once  she  played  with  me  during  the 
washing  and  the  linen  scorched.  That  caused  a great  fuss 
because  of  which,  she  left  us.  I was  innocent. 

13.  [Menofeite.]  Is  not  that  an  English  word  ? It  seems  to 
me  that  I have  heard  it  in  the  previously  mentioned  English 
sermon,  still  it  is  quite  hazy  to  me.  “Men”  is  English,  for 
instance,  good  man  = guter  Mann.  [Menofeite.]  Now  it 
comes  to  mind.  The  Englishman  spoke  of  different  sects,  also 
of  that  of  Mrs.  White,  then  of  the  religious  war  between  Spain 
and  England  and  of  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  fleet.  By 
this,  he  wished  to  show  that  we  also  have  to  fight  with  invisible 
forces.  [Mrs.  White.]  The  Adventist.  I find  she  cannot 
defend  her  position.  Many  Adventists  wished  in  vain  to  con- 
vert us.  The  Englishman  called  them  dependent  because  they 
were  led  by  women.  My  mother  was  angry  at  this  because  she 
felt  herself  attacked. 

14.  [Lor.]  If  it  is  “Lora,”  I can  interpret  it.  The  em- 
ployer of  my  father  had  a horse  named  Lora  with  which  I was 


234 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


very  friendly  when  a child.  One  day  it  kicked  when  the  groom 
tormented  it  and  hit  me  on  the  leg.  [Si.]  I can ’t  make  any- 
thing out  of  that. 

15.  [Si  wo.]  Perhaps  that  refers  again  to  a child’s  game. 
One  day  we  played  hide  and  seek.  “Si  wo”  means:  “See, 
where  are  you!”  I lost  myself  in  the  forest  and  wandered 
around  for  three  hours. 

16.  [Phantes.]  Phantasy.  The  teacher  scolded  us  when 
we  spoke  falsely:  “You  phantasy.”  Once  he  wrote  under 
a composition:  “Nice  phantasy.”  That  bothered  me. 

17.  [Menelor.]  Mene,  is  it?  One  might  translate  that, 
meine  ( — mine).  In  the  factory,  I helped  my  father  on  a 
Saturday  afternoon.  There  I had  to  pass  with  needles  through 
lowries,  that  is,  trucks.  A needle  point  penetrated  deep  into 
my  finger  and  broke  off.  The  physician  could  get  it  out  only 
with  difficulty. 

18.  [Gut.]  As  before.  If  it  was  good.  [Gut.]  At  a 
wedding  feast,  I retained  the  cover  after  each  course.  Sud- 
denly I had  a whole  stack  of  eating  utensils  lying  about  me 
and  was  laughed  at  so  much  that  I was  fearfully  embarrassed. 

19.  [Menofeit.]  That,  we  have  already  had.  “Man  of  the 
White.”  The  mother  said  afterwards  that  she  did  not  think 
it  proper  for  the  Englishman  to  be  so  personal,  one  might 
also  expose  much  among  his  adherents.  [Hi.]  Nothing. 

20.  [Hiso.]  A half-witted  workman  in  the  factory  always 
said:  “Hi,  hi”  and  “So,  so.”  The  others  mimicked  him, 
I,  however,  protected  him. 

21.  [Met.]  One  might  translate  it:  mit  (with).  Once  I 
■went  out  with  my  father  and  the  baby  carriage.  When  we 
were  far  from  home,  a heavy  hail  storm  came  up.  We  could 
still  quickly  find  shelter  in  a barn.  Tiles  and  windows  were 
broken.  We  were  greatly  afraid. 

22.  [Da  lor.]  Again  the  scene  in  the  factory.  The  chief 
severely  reprimanded  my  father  because  he  gave  me  such  a 
difficult  task.  Since  then  I can  no  longer  do  it. 

Later  additions: 

1.  [Esin.]  I could  almost  trace  that  back  to  recent  time. 


RELIGIOUS  GLOSSOLALIA 


235 


When  I expressed  doubt  concerning  the  speaking  with  tongues, 
one  accused  me  of  being  an  intellectual  fancy-monger. 
“Esin”  means  “ein  Sinn”  and  refers  to  the  fact  that  I will 
brood  over  everything  with  my  mind. 

2.  [Gut.]  I worked  on  a written  article,  the  conclusion  of 
which  I did  not  find  for  a long  while.  Now,  however,  all  is 
well. 

3.  [Efflorien.]  The  journey  to  Florence  came  to  naught  like 
the  elephant’s  hat. 

4.  [Meinosgat.]  Memory  of  my  friend  Oskar. 

Since  the  subsequent  words  brought  nothing  new  to  light, 
I broke  off,  certainly  much  too  early  to  gain  the  complex  which 
was  already  peeping  through  and  to  which  the  various  asso- 
ciations point  back  as  to  the  common  point  of  convergence, 
as  the  rays  which  break  forth  behind  a wall,  in  spite  of  their 
diverging  directions,  point  to  a central  place.  I asked  there- 
fore: [Has  a common  characteristic  of  all  your  associations 
become  clear  to  you?]  All  concern  the  period  of  my  youth. 
[Pleasant  experiences?]  No,  rather  unpleasant.  [Certainly, 
only  all  finally  turn  out  well.  What  do  you  say  now?  Do 
you  wish  to  console  yourself  with  that,  because  at  present  you 
have  trouble  on  your  heart?]  It  is  so!  I am  in  trouble  be- 
cause of  my  future,  my  existence.  I have  an  inclination  to 
study,  to  have  a theological  education  and  do  not  know  how 
to  begin.  Thus  I suffer  from  a constant  internal  strife. 

From  results  which  we  will  later  submit  to  the  reader,  we 
assume  the  right  to  formulate  the  meaning  of  the  regressions 
to  childhood  in  the  following  manner: 

T Vord  in  secret  Idea  conditioned  by  Relief  for  complex 
speech  complex 

1.  Esin  I foster  doubts  of  my  Never  mind.  Only  your 

secret  speech.  brooding  mind  doubts. 

2.  gut  They  doubt  my  kindness  You  were  always  a good 

of  heart  (necessary  in  son  and  man. 
ministerial  profession) 

( later  expressly  con- 
firmed ) . 


236  THE 

3.  efflorien 

4.  meinosgat 

5.  schinohaz 

6.  daheit 

7.  wenesgut 

8.  n&rwossalaitsch 

9.  enogaz 

10.  to  lorden 

11.  hat 


PSYCHOANALYTIC 

The  disappointment  re- 
garding Florence;  an  un- 
lucky man  cannot  study. 

You  poor  thing,  you  lost 
your  truest  friend. 


Persecution  by  teacher 
and  fellow  pupils. 

Persecution  by  fellow 
pupils. 

Misfortune  in  a swim- 
ming race. 

Deficient  talent  in  speak- 
ing, covetousness. 

Persecution  by  fellow 
pupils,  deficient  author- 
ity among  comrades. 

Ambition,  love  of  splen- 
dor. 

You  were  careless  in  a 
church  and  came  into 
mortal  danger. 


METHOD 

Nothing  to  it;  it  was 
only  as  if  an  elephant 
destroyed  a hat. 

You  possess  the  true 
heart  necessary  for  a 
minister.  (Over-com- 
pensation for  internal 
accusations  of  unworthi- 
ness  for  the  profession.) 

I was  innocent,  suffered 
for  my  uprightness  and 
pious  conviction. 

There  was  no  guilt,  only 
harmless  jest. 

Fortunate  salvation  from 
death ; virtuous  deeds. 

Genius  for  secret  speech. 
Freedom  from  covetous- 
ness. 

You  suffer,  on  account  of 
your  fondness  for  ani- 
mals. 

Now  I long  only  for  the 
Lord  of  Heaven. 

That  childish  careless- 
ness has  long  been  atoned 
for.  (The  verb  denotes 
in  Swiss  German  the 
preterite,  for  which  in 
this  dialect,  there  is  no 
simple  form ; perhaps 
there  is  also  a contrac- 
tion of  “hart”  since 
there  may  be  a play  on 
the  harshness  of  the  bell 
striking  on  the  head.) 


RELIGIOUS  GLOSSOLALIA 


237 


12.  wuschenehat 

The  dallying  with  a 
girl  brought  unpleasant 
things. 

The  guilt  was  entirely 
on  the  girl’s  part. 

13.  menofeite 

I allow  myself  to  be  di- 
rected by  women  and  am 
accordingly  dependent. 

( This  reproach  appears 
plainly  later.) 

I have  refused  the  Ad- 
ventists directed  by  a 
woman,  thus  am  inde- 
pendent; for  the  rest, 
that  reproach  against 
those  influenced  by 

women  is  exaggerated. 

14.  lor 

You  suffered  a misfor- 
tune from  a trusted 
horse. 

The  groom  alone  was 
guilty,  the  misfortune 
had  a good  ending. 

15.  si  wo 

I am  in  the  wrong. 

I corrected  myself. 

16.  phantea 

My  phantasy  was  des- 
pised. 

(Phantasy  is  also  a val- 
uable talent.) 

17.  menelor 

My  clumsiness  in  the 
factory  injured  me. 

That  work  which  was 
too  hard  for  your  age 
should  not  have  been 
assigned  to  you. 

18.  gut 

You  have  already  made 
a fool  of  yourself. 

That  was  only  a social 
bagatelle. 

•19.  monofeit 

You  are  ruled  by 
women. 

Others  have  perhaps 
still  greater  faults. 

20.  hiso 

You  were  mocked’  as  a 
fool. 

You  have  gallantly  taken 
the  part  of  the  feeble- 
minded, hence  the  mock- 
ery against  you. 

21.  met 

A storm  threatened. 

You  were  protected. 

22.  dii  lor 

Again  the  accident  with 
the  lowries. 

It  was  not  mine,  but  my 
father’s  mistake. 

The  memory  of  one-time  adversities  and  the  harmless  char- 
acter of  these  is  plainly  called  forth  as  in  dream,  hallucination, 


238 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


hysterical  symptom,  obsessional  neurotic  phenomenon  and 
other  automatisms  by  present  needs  which  possess  similarity 
to  those  infantile  experiences.  It  is  not  difficult  to  derive 
these  present  tormenting  impressions  which  have  taken  flight 
in  the  secret  speech  and  there  manifest  themselves  in  suggestive 
manner  from  the  secret  speech. 

The  thinking  of  our  subject  is  forced  back  into  childhood 
by  the  circumstance  that  the  young  man  sees  himself  inhibited 
in  his  career.  He  must  satisfy  himself  with  his  infantile  re- 
pressions. His  wish  is  plainly  to  become  a regular  minister. 
Against  this  wish,  there  arise  grave  doubts  which,  under  the 
threshold  of  consciousness,  awaken  memories  of  youthful  ex- 
periences, which  memories,  by  the  relationship  of  these  ex- 
periences to  the  present  situation,  seemingly  strengthen  those 
doubts;  but  by  the  favorable  outcome  of  the  experiences  and 
upon  closer  consideration,  the  memories  support  the  opposite 
view,  indeed,  at  times,  change  into  fortunate  results  supporting 
the  present  wish. 

In  brief,  the  secret  speech  says:  You  possess  the  necessary 
religious,  moral  and  intellectual  qualifications  to  be  able,  with 
God’s  help,  to  become  a minister  in  spite  of  persecution  and 
misfortune.  That  in  delusion,  all  earlier  ideas  of  a person 
are  reflected,  has  already  been  recognized  by  the  poet  Hebbel.* 

When  we  have  opportunity  to  analyze  thoroughly  the  dreams 
and  manifestations  of  normal  individuals,  we  find  constantly, 
such  infantile  traces,  to  which  they  have  gone  back  because 
the  present  was  opposed  to  a passionate  wish. 

Poetry  is  full  of  such  regressions.  In  Johann  Schlaf’s 
“Friihling,”  we  read  these  lines:  “Here  I lay,  now,  under 
my  hawthorn,  playing  and  wandering  to  my  heart’s  content.” 
“And  now  I am  a child  again.”  “Putting  the  head  deeper 
in  the  grass.  Now  making  my  longing,  perceiving  mind 
smaller  and  ever  smaller  and  now  I am  quite  wee  small 
again.”  t Does  this  not  remind  us  of  Jung’s  patient  in  the 

* F.  Hebbel,  Tagebiicher  Vol.  I,  3 (March  29,  1835). 

t Cited  by  Richard  Hamann,  Der  Impressionismus  in  Leben  u.  Kunst. 
Koln,  1907,  p.  92. 


SYMBOLIZING  REGRESSION 


239 


climacteric,  who  felt  as  if  her  arms  and  legs  were  all  the  time 
growing  smaller  and  who  wished  to  be  carried  and  felt  how  she 
let  herself  go?*  Hebbel  says  very  truly  in  his  “Genoveva”: 

‘ ‘ It  is  life ’s  worst  malady  to  still  know  what  we  were,  when 
we  are  that  no  longer.  There,  would  we  creep  back  into  our 
roots,  but  in  vain.  ’ ’ f 

This  longing  often  expresses  itself  as  longing  for  the  mother 
with  those  who  strive  against  the  delusion,  for  example,  Hol- 
derlin  and  Lenau.i 

Further,  infantile  acts  are  resumed  in  the  regression.  A 
gentleman,  aged  thirty-six,  who  was  undergoing  analysis  on 
account  of  impotence,  reports  that  he  brought  candy  home 
to  his  wife,  something  he  had  never  done  during  a married 
life  of  ten  years  and  afterwards  regarded  as  childish.  The 
forces  of  libido  freed  in  the  analysis,  he  cannot  at  once  utilize 
properly.  As  a child,  he  often  brought  his  mother  similar 
delicacies. 

An  important  variety  of  the  process  under  discussion  is 
the  symbolizing  regression.  Freud  gives  the  following  ex- 
ample of  this  phenomenon:  “In  the  parent-complex,  we 
recognize  the  root  of  the  religious  need ; the  almighty,  just  God 
and  kindly  Nature  seem  to  us  to  be  perfect  sublimations  of 
the  father  and  mother,  still  more  as  renewals  and  restorations 
of  the  early  infantile  conceptions  of  these  two  persons.  Bio- 
logically, the  religious  life  goes  back  to  the  long  persisti  tig  help- 
lessness and  need  for  assistance  of  the  little  human  child,  who, 
when  he  has  later  recognized  his  real  destitution  and  weakness 
in  comparison  with  the  great  force  of  life,  feels  his  position 
just  as  in  childhood  and  seeks  to  deny  his  wretchedness  by 
the  regressive  renewal  of  infantile  protective  measures.”  || 
Thus,  this  would  be  a regression  which  sets  up,  instead  of  the 
infantile  parent-image,  a symbolical  representative  of  the  same. 
From  this  circumstance,  follows  the  very  important  fact  that 

* Riklin,  Wunsclierfiillung  u.  Svmbolik  im  Marehen,  page  13. 

f Hebbel,  Genoveva,  Act  III,  Scene  4. 

t Lenau,  Sonette  (Der  Seelenkranke.) 

!|  Freud,  Leonardo,  57.  I scarcely  need  to  add  that  I cannot  eon- 
eider  the  problem  of  religious  truth  as  solved  therewith. 


240 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


the  contents  of  the  regression  do  not  necessarily  disclose 
former  ideas  and  wishes  but  later  elaborations  and  investments 
of  these  ideas  and  wishes.  Nothing  prevents,  therefore,  con- 
sidering incestuous  regression  ideas  as  such  and  interpreting 
them  the  same  as  other  symbols  so  long  as  the  infantile  incestu- 
ous wish  is  not  shown  to  be  an  universal  human  factor.  On 
this  point,  more  exact  investigations  are  to  be  awaited. 

b.  Regression  to  Infantile  Forms  of  Activity 

The  child  is  not  capable  of  a scientific  mode  of  thinking. 
He  thinks  in  pictures,  likenesses.  The  adult,  too,  who  goes 
in  pursuit  of  scientific  prey  is,  under  circumstances  when  he 
does  not  attain  his  goal,  thrown  back  upon  this  infantile 
thinking  in  pictures;  such  circumstances  are  fatigue,  weak- 
ness from  disease  or  toxins,  for  example,  alcohol)  and  other 
injuries  to  consciousness.  For  a beautiful  example,  we  are 
indebted  to  Alfred  Robitsek  who  subjected  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  more  recent  discoveries  in  the  field  of  chemis- 
try, that  of  the  benzol  ring  by  Kekule  to  an  analytic  investiga- 
tion. Kekule  described  at  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  that 
discovery,  how  he  sank  into  a dreamy  state  on  the  roof  of  an 
omnibus : The  atoms  flitted  about  before  me,  many  times  two 
smaller  ones  joined  to  form  a pair,  larger  ones  embraced  two 
smaller,  still  larger,  three  and  even  four.  He  spent  part  of 
the  night  in  putting  this  dream  structure  on  paper  and  thus 
sprang  into  existence  the  celebrated  structural  theory.  It 
happened  similarly  with  the  benzol  theory : Again  the  atoms 
danced  before  his  dreaming  eyes.  A snakelike  movement  be- 
gan. “And  see,  what  was  that?  One  of  the  snakes  seized 
his  own  tail  and  mockingly  whirled  the  structure  before  my 
eyes.  I awoke  as  by  a stroke  of  lightning;  this  time  too,  I 
needed  the  remainder  of  the  night  to  work  out  the  consequences 
of  this  hypothesis.”*  The  great  chemist  added  wittily: 
‘ ‘ Let  us  learn  to  dream,  gentlemen,  then  perhaps  we  shall  find 
the  truth; 

* A.  Robitsek,  Symbol.  Denken  in  der  chem.  Forschg.  Imago  I,  83-90. 


HYPNOID  HALLUCINATIONS 


241 


“And  he  who  thinks  not, 

To  him  it  is  sent, 

He  has  it  without  trouble.” 

but  let  us  guard  against  publishing  our  dreams  until  they 
have  been  tested  by  the  waking  reason.  ’ ’ * 

Silberer,  who  first  investigated  this  kind  of  hypnoid  hal- 
lucinations, describes  the  mechanism  in  these  words:  “The 
psychic  content  produced  by  the  meditation,  or  in  broader 
sense,  by  the  disturbance,  is  perceived,  because  of  the  sleepy 
confusion,  not  in  the  form  corresponding  to  its  normal  apper- 
ception, but  in  a distinct  picture  converted  into  a symbol  and 
hallucinated  as  such  in  accord  with  the  circumstances.  These 
autosymbolical  phenomena  constitute  fatigue  phenomena  and 
a regression  from  a difficult  mode  of  thought  to  an  easier, 
more  primitive  type.  This  process,  which  is  called  according 
to  Freudian  terminology,  “regression,”  denotes  a displace- 
ment from  an  abstract  form  of  thought  to  a pictorial  form  and 
from  the  apperceptive  train  of  thought  to  the  associative.”  t 
This  regression  can  also  be  called  reversion.  In  the  fully 
conscious  waking  state,  stimuli  proceed  from  the  object  to  the 
organ  of  perception,  join  subconscious  mental  activities  and 
lead  to  motor  discharges.  In  the  hallucinatory  dream,  ac- 
cording to  Freud,  the  excitation  takes  a regressive  course, 
spreading  out  over  the  sensory  part  of  the  apparatus  instead 
of  the  motor  part,  and  finally  ending  in  the  system  of  per- 
ceptions.J  Even  the  intentional  memory  has  regressive  char- 
acteristics, only  it  does  not  create  like  the  dream,  pictures  ani- 
mated in  hallucinatory  fashion.  “We  call  it  regression  when 
the  idea  in  the  dream  changes  back  into  the  sensual  picture 
from  which  it  has  once  proceeded.”  ||  That  the  infantile 
wishes  are  also  thereby  awakened  in  pictorial  form  in  the 
sleeping-room  of  memory,  has  already  been  explained. 

We  find  this  functional  regression  in  the  dream,  in  the  hal- 

* Same,  p.  87. 

t Herbert  Silberer,  Phantasie  u.  Mythos.  Jahrb.  II,  p.  605. 
t Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  362. 

||  Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  363.  Witz,  p.  138. 


242 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


lucination,  in  the  waking  phantasy,  while  the  regression  of 
content  takes  place  unconsciously  all  the  time  when  certain 
conditions  are  fulfilled. 

The  necessity  and  biological  significance  of  regression  is 
shown  in  two  directions.  Causally:  One  can  show  that  the 
repressed  wishes  of  childhood  remain  preserved  in  the  disposi- 
tion and  manifest  themselves  upon  every  opportunity.  Teleo- 
logically : One  may  point  out  that  the  unity  of  the  personality 
can  remain  intact  only  on  condition  that  the  libido  continually 
goes  back  to  the  initial  stage  of  life.*  Finally:  The  inter- 
ests of  the  present,  the  acute  wishes  and  needs  seek  to  derive 
hope  and  consolation  from  the  memory  of  analogous  experi- 
ences, long  past,  which  had  favorable  terminations.  Our 
childhood  contains  the  deposits  on  which  we  draw  when  the 
present  oppresses  us.  But  hate  which  gets  intoxicated  in  plans 
for  revenge,  envy  and  jealousy  also  draw  their  strength  from 
the  infantile  stage.  Childhood  is  no  Garden  of  Eden,  where 
only  beautiful  flowers  and  spicy  fruits  grow.  It  is  a forest 
which  harbors  besides  the  strawberries,  the  deadly  nightshade, 
besides  the  roe,  the  wolf.  It  is  of  immeasurable  importance 
for  a human  life,  whether  the  ever-recurring  enforced  retreat 
into  the  land  of  childhood  presents  friendly  or  hateful  pictures 
for  contemplation.  Richard  Wagner  expresses  this  purpose 
of  regression  sharply  and  clearly  in  these  words:  “All  our 
wishes  and  ardent  inclinations,  which,  in  truth,  carry  us  over 
into  the  future,  we  seek  to  fashion  from  pictures  of  the  past 
into  sensual  perceptibility  in  order  to  gain  for  ourselves  the 
form  which  the  modern  present  cannot  furnish  them.  ’ ’ f 

* G.  F.  Lipps  rightly  says:  “Our  consciousness  gives  us  simul- 
taneously with  the  perception  of  passing  present  events,  memories  of 
the  past,  and  on  a basis  of  such  memories,  puts  much  before  our  eye3 
which  we  expect  only  from  the  future.  It  is,  however,  also  dependent 
on  all  that  which  we  experience  and  have  experienced,  without  our 
having  emphasized  it  separately  and  been  able  to  distinguish  it  from 
other  material.  Thus  it  gains  a quality  which  characterizes  our  whole 
design  in  its  unified  existence  and  reveals  itself  as  the  feeling  in  which 
our  personality,  our  ego,  finds  expression.”  (Das  Problem  der  Willens- 
freiheit,  p.  80.) 

f O.  Rank,  Die  Lohengrinsage,  p.  134. 


ATAVISTIC  REGRESSION 


243 


While  the  free  individual  experiences  from  his  contact  with 
his  childhood  no  inhibition  to  his  forward  striving,  the  psycho- 
neurotic remains  stuck  in  the  regression  to  the  infantile.  We 
could  see  this  in  particular  where  we  penetrated  to  childhood. 
If  we  investigate  a refractory  person  who  seeks  quarrels  with 
all  in  authority,  we  find  as  root  of  the  trouble,  the  regression 
to  the  attitude  of  defiance  which  the  child  assumed  toward  his 
father  and  the  fixation  in  this  fatal  infantilism.  One  can  call 
the  psychoneurosis  a regressive  attachment  or  fixation  in  the 
regression. 

The  pedagogic  problem  which  the  analysis  forces  upon  us, 
is  therefore  illuminated  from  a new  standpoint : separation 
from  the  bonds  of  childhood,  release  from  infantilism,  so  far 
as  these  influence  the  control  of  the  present  and  conquest  of 
the  future,  becomes  a problem,  on  the  mastery  of  which,  much 
of  happiness  and  value  in  life  depends. 

c.  The  Atavistic  Regression 

Freud  recognized  that  in  dreams  and  similar  products  of 
the  mental  life,  structures  recur  which  correspond  both  in  con- 
tent and  origin  to  the  mythological  creations  of  primitive  peri- 
ods. He  thinks  it  probable  that  myths  correspond  to  the  dis- 
torted wish  phantasies  of  whole  nations,  the  secular  dreams  of 
young  humanity.*  In  the  dream  and  in  the  neurosis,  he  again 
finds  the  savages,  the  primitive  men  with  the  peculiarities  of 
their  mode  of  thought  and  of  their  affect  life,  t Jung,  in  par- 
ticular, perceived  that  in  the  delusional  structures  of  dementia 
prcecox,  the  old  mythology  and  archaic  philosophical  speculation 
recurs.  This  agreement  became  so  certain  upon  extended 
investigations  that  he  ventured  to  interpret  mythology  from 
phenomena  observed  in  patients  and  vice  versa.  The  revivi- 
fication, he  considers  not  a material  one  but  only  a functional 
one,  so  that  archaic  traces  of  memory  might  yield  their  mem- 
ories to  those  suited  to  them.  The  neurotic  producing  archaic 

* Freud,  Der  Dichter  u.  d.  Phantasieren.  Kl.  Sehriften  II,  p.  205. 

t Freud,  Nachtrag  zu  d.  autobiogr.  beschrieb.  Fall  vou  Paranoia- 
Jahrbuch  III,  p.  590. 


244  THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 

content  is  in  a psychological  constellation  similar  to  that  of  the 
son  of  antiquity,  hence  he  creates  strikingly  similar  formations. 

These  extraordinarily  keen  investigations,  executed  with 
great  sharpness  of  vision  and  astounding  scholarship,  owe 
their  origin  to  insight  won  by  analysis.*  But  in  this  as  in 
so  many  qther  questions  which  we  seek  to  solve  in  this  book, 
it  turned  out  afterwards  that  superior  students  of  humanity, 
especially  poets  and  philosophers,  had  even  earlier  perceived 
the  true  state  of  affairs.  Nietzsche  had  already  formulated 
the  statement : “In  sleep  and  dream,  we  perform  the  whole 
task  of  early  humanity”  . . . “The  dream  brings  us  back 
again  to  the  distant  states  of  human  culture  and  provides 
us  a means  for  better  understanding  them.”  f 

This  problem,  which  the  application  of  biogenetic  basic 
principles  to  the  mental  development  proposes,  is  not  of  suffi- 
cient pedagogic  importance  to  warrant  my  devoting  a detailed 
discussion  to  it. 

Every  neurosis  is  a manifestation  of  infantilism,  not  only 
because  it  constantly  revives  infantile  phantasies  but  also  be- 
cause it  represents  an  infantile  form  of  functioning.  Hence 
the  task  of  healing  the  neuroses  is  the  conquest  of  the  infan- 
tilism, of  the  regression  to  childhood  and  the  abolition  of  this 
anachronism. 

6.  The  Condensation 

If  we  apply  the  analytic  basic  principle  (page  8)  to 
a manifestation,  we  gain  material  which  greatly  exceeds  that 
manifestation  in  extent.  Often,  an  apparently  incidental  trait 
of  the  complex-product  points  to  an  important  episode  or  phan- 
tasy. Therein,  one  and  the  same  sign  has  for  determinants 
a whole  series  of  reminiscences  or  other  ideas,  so  that  behind 
the  “manifest  content,”  there  lurks  a number  of  “latent  com- 

* Jung  lays  weight  on  the  circumstance  that  he  did  not  construct 
his  libido-theory  from  mythological  studies  but  found  in  these  studies, 
a confirmation  of  the  insight  into  the  processes  of  the  libido  gained 
empirically. 

f Nietzsche,  Menschliches,  Allzumenschliches.  Cited  by  Jung,  Wand- 
lungen  u.  Symbole  der  Libido.  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  142, 


COMPOSITE  STRUCTURES 


245 


plex  thoughts,  ’ ’ unconscious  motives,  and  hence  also,  many  in- 
terpretations are  necessary  in  order  to  reveal  exhaustively  the 
mental  content  of  the  manifestation.  Such  formations  are 
called  stratifications.  One  is  often  much  surprised  at  what 
an  extensive  material  may  spring  from  a very  simple  complex- 
formation  as  sum  of  motives. 

In  every  manifestation,  a condensation  work  comes  to  ex- 
pression. This  is  most  striking  to  external  observation  when 
contents  are  imposed  on  one  another  which  in  reality  do  not 
belong  together  at  all,  it  may  be  that  one  single  figure  is  created 
from  heterogenous  characteristics  (composite  figure),  it  may 
be  that  one  complete  act  is  executed  in  unrelated,  mutually  in- 
appropriate sections.  Such  condensation  formations  often 
appear  downright  comical.  This  ludicrous  result  of  many  a 
condensation  cannot  surprise  us  for  one  whole  group  of  witti- 
cisms depends  on  condensation. 

(a)  THE  COMPOSITE  FORMATION 

We  have  already  seen  examples  of  such  mental  action.  I 
call  to  mind,  for  instance,  the  vision  of  the  devil  (page  38). 
My  patient  recognized  in  the  devil,  who  was  at  first  unfa- 
miliar, the  hair  and  rough  hands  of  his  enemy  whom  he  had 
called  a devil,  then  the  nose  of  a girl  concerning  whom  the 
evil  fellow  had  maligned  our  hallucinating  patient.  In 
reality,  the  nose  did  not  suit  a strange  face  at  all.  As  expres- 
sion of  the  unconscious  wish:  “May  you  carry  with  you  in 
your  face  the  mark  of  shame  for  your  desire  for  calumny!”  it 
is  in  its  right  place. 

Wherever  in  dream  or  other  manifestations,  there  appears 
an  unknown  figure,  a strange  face,  a phantastic  object,  a sense- 
less word-formation  or  the  like,  there  is  almost  always  con- 
densation. In  general,  the  analysis  succeeds  wherever  it  is  ap- 
plied in  dissolving  these  false  structures  into  well-known  mem- 
ories and  the  phantastic  elaboration  of  these.  An  internal 
connection  between  the  characteristics  apparently  thrown  to- 
gether so  senselessly,  will  never  be  lacking  in  such  cases. 

Freud  made  the  discovery  that  those  portions  of  the  mani- 


246 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


festations  which  appear  most  persistently,  do  not  betray  the 
places  behind  which  the  strongest  masses  of  affect  lurk,  but 
that  in  which  the  most  concentrated  condensation-work  oc- 
curred.* 

The  pupil  mentioned  on  page  67,  who  frankly  admitted  her 
hatred  of  her  parents  and  brothers,  suffered,  every  evening, 
from  severe  anxiety.  Frequently,  she  hallucinated  a man  who 
disappeared  behind  her  bed.  She  could  not  describe  him 
clearly  but  had  the  impression  that  she  did  not  know  him. 
The  eyes  were  exactly  like  those  of  a boy  three  years  older 
than  herself,  who,  eight  years  before,  had  seduced  her,  and 
in  company  with  her  brother  and  one  of  his  school  comrades 
had  repeatedly  misused  her  sexually.  Other  features,  espe- 
cially beard  and  stature,  belonged  to  a man  of  forty  years  with 
whom  she  had  become  acquainted  not  long  before,  still  others 
to  her  grandfather  and  the  analyst.  The  patient  was  fond 
of  masochistic  and  sadistic  dreams:  she  is  undressed  by  her 
naked  father,  tormented  on  the  table  and  whipped.  In  the 
first  weeks  of  the  treatment,  she  brought  the  analyst  into  her 
phantasies  in  astonishingly  numerous  and  clever  devices.  For 
the  past  two  years,  she  has  observed  almost  every  night  the 
sexual  intercourse  of  her  parents,  to  which  the  mother  inter- 
posed vigorous  objection.  On  these  occasions,  the  girl  dis- 
played a rage  at  her  father  and  a strong  orgasm  which  she 
was  accustomed  to  call  forth  voluntarily  by  day. 

Also  in  waking  life,  she  condensed  constantly:  Father, 
grandfather,  teacher  and  analyst  plainly  have  for  her  the  eyes 
of  her  seducer,  even  though  they  differ  according  to  the  testi- 
mony of  the  girl,  in  color,  size  and  position  from  those  of  that 
person.  The  reason  for  this  condensation  consisted  in  the 
fact  that  for  the  young  catatonic  patient,  being  looked  at  is 
toned  with  the  strongest  sexual  emotions,  corresponding  to 
her  unfortunate  past.  All  the  persons  united  in  the  composite 
figure  belong  together  as  libido-objects  and  form  a unit  for  her. 
A longer  analysis  would  certainly  have  traced  back  still  other 
characteristics  of  the  hallucination  to  their  real  origin  in  the 

* Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  260. 


ANALYSIS  OF  HALLUCINATIONS 


247 


longed-for  men.  But  the  ease  was  far  too  serious  to  allow 
psychological  curiosity  to  dwell  on  the  phenomenon  too  long. 

There  was  also  a condensation  in  the  circumstance  that  for 
years  the  patient  could  only  think  of  men  as  having  erect 
penises:  She  combined  the  pictures  of  the  young  seducer, 
some  exhibitionists  whom  she  wished  to  have  seen  and  of  her 
father  with  those  of  other  male  persons.  Jesus  alone  formed 
an  exception:  He  was  the  only  man  who  did  not  come  into 
consideration  as  a sexual  being. 

When,  after  some  months,  the  hallucinations  recurred,  simul- 
taneously with  the  anxiety,  religious  phantasies  began  to  be 
formed  which  bore  almost  visionary  distinctness.  The  girl  saw 
God  whom  she  could  not  endure,  standing  in  the  air  while  she 
was  most  glad  to  pray  to  the  Savior.  His  facial  features 
changed  from  hour  to  hour  or  even  during  the  consultation, 
so  that  for  a time,  the  analysis  was  almost  entirely  spent  in  de- 
ciphering these  astonishingly  condensed  features  which  were 
extraordinarily  productive  in  religious  psychological  meanings. 

I can  give  only  a few  sketches.  At  first,  God  appeared  as 
human-like  figure,  some  two  meters  in  height,  standing  above 
a forest.  His  features  were  similar  to  those  of  an  “old” 
(fifty  years)  cousin  on  her  father’s  side,  a stingy,  bigoted  pietist 
whom  she  hated  even  more  than  most  other  men.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  God-picture  the  dark  features,  the  brown  skin, 
the  eyes  and  particularly  the  eyebrows.  But  the  mother  also 
contributed : the  flabby  face  musculature  of  the  phantasy  figure 
came  from  her.  The  beard  belonged  to  a St.  Nicholas  and  to 
old  Pastor  J.  The  eyebrows  pointed  somewhat  to  the  younger 
Pastor  C.  The  nose  was  entirely  that  of  the  analyst. 

In  explanation,  it  may  be  added:  The  patient  knows  of 
God,  who  was  always  described  to  her  as  “father,”  only  un- 
pleasant things : He  changed  Lot’s  wife,  who  had  only  turned 
around  quickly,  into  a pillar  of  salt.  He  sent  a plague  of 
locusts.  Both  narratives  the  girl  has  extensively  elaborated: 
She  herself  like  Lot’s  wile  had  turned  around  in  unallowed 
manner  in  order  to  observe  her  parents.  The  pillar  of  salt 
resembled  an  iron  maiden  in  which  men  were  killed.  In  this 


248 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


phantasy  was  reflected  the  truly  demoniacal  hatred  of  the 
child  for  the  masculine  world.  The  plague  of  locusts  reminded 
the  little  patient  of  how  such  insects  jumped  under  her  skirt 
and  clung  to  her  legs,  of  which  she  was  violently  afraid. 

The  girl  called  God  mean  in  full  consciousness  because  he 
left  her  burning  desire  for  sexual  pleasure  unsatisfied.  The 
child,  who  for  the  rest  seemed  to  be  a model  of  propriety  and 
innocence,  told  me  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  analysis 
that  she  had  firmly  decided  a long  time  ago  to  yield  herself 
sexually  to  the  first  boy  or  man  that  came  along.  Only  after 
elimination  of  the  anxiety,  could  the  gross  desire  of  the  girl, 
who  deep  down  was  good-natured  but  corrupted  by  sexual 
brutality  in  childhood  and  misdirected  pedagogy  of  her  par- 
ents, be  directed  to  higher  paths. 

Behind  the  stingy  cousin,  naturally  lurked  the  likewise 
supposedly  miserly,  but  in  reality  often  financially  embar- 
rassed father,  who  constantly  preached  morality  (and  for  the 
rest,  was  a very  virtuous,  upright  man). 

The  flabby  cheeks  of  God,  plainly  marked  by  a wrinkle,  re- 
minded her  of  how  the  mother  in  a severe  illness,  five  years 
before* seemed  to  die.  St.  Nicholas  was  not  long  taken  earn- 
estly. Soon,  he  became  only  a comic  figure.  The  old  Pastor 
J.  was  a tiresome,  infirm  man  who  probably  had  not  long  to 
live.  The  young  Pastor  C.  was  hated  because  of  his  strictness. 
The  analyst  showed  the  sign  of  the  so-called  “negative  trans- 
ference” (see  below),  that  is,  he  had  to  bear  the  hatred  which 
is  really  thought  against  the  persons  mentioned  in  the  analy- 
sis. Plainly,  he  should,  like  the  father,  mother,  cousin,  St. 
Nicholas  and  the  two  pastors,  come  to  God  and  be  taken  away 
from  earth.  Again  the  hypocritically  pious  wish  which  we 
found  in  the  vision  of  the  angel  (37).  For  what  better  can 
anyone  wish  a person  than  that  he  should  be  with  God  ? 

After  this  exploration,  for  some  days,  the  phantom  appeared 
blasphemous  with  funny  face  but  this  grimace  was  also  easily 
removed  by  analysis.  There  followed  a picture  of  God  which 
took  the  sun  as  subject.  The  body  had  disappeared,  the  hairs 
stood  out  like  a halo.  The  face  was  totally  different.  Its 


COMPOSITE  FIGURES 


249 


expression  recalled  that  of  a bird  of  prey,  then  further  that 
of  Pastor  L.  and  still  further  those  of  Calvin  and  Bonnivard. 
The  beardlessness  corresponded  with  that  of  her  grandfather 
and  that  of  a Mormon  she  knew.  The  eyes  were  those  of  the 
avaricious  Itzig  in  Freytag’s  “Soli  und  Haben.” 

The  aspect  of  this  new  God  was  plainly  entirely  new.  His 
psychic  content  has  remained  about  the  same  as  of  old.  The 
halo  was  associated  with  the  hair  of  a little  devil  or  of  Peter 
Scrubby.  Thus,  scorn  for  God  still  prevails. 

Pastor  L.  is  a prominent  preacher  but  a fanatic  and  enemy 
of  enlightenment  like  Calvin  who  also  proclaimed  a gloomy 
God.  Bonnivard  lived  for  years  as  a prisoner  chained  to  a 
pillar.  The  patient  wished  this  fate  upon  all  figures  who  were 
banished  in  the  God  phantasy.  The  pastor  was  likewise  old 
like  her  father  and  cousin.  The  mother  greatly  revered  him. 
Before  he  was  associated  with  God ’s  picture,  he  had  been  very 
ill  and  became  helpless.  Helpless  also  was  the  grandfather 
represented  in  the  picture  of  God,  who  was  always  glad  to 
admonish  and  preach.  The  Mormon  was  a rough  peasant 
who  had  a pious  countenance,  did  unbelievable  things  and 
spoke  of  being  in  love  with  canary  birds  but  wished  to  entice 
quite  different  birds.  The  grandfather  also  spoke  of  being 
in  love  with  the  caged  bird.  The  avaricious  Itzig  again  empha- 
sized a prominent  trait  of  the  old  cousin. 

Again  there  was  crammed  into  the  idea  of  God,  fanaticism, 
gloomy  nature,  nagging,  tiresome  moralizing,  avarice  and  to 
that  a mean  opinion.  As  punishment,  helplessness  appeared 
and  again  perhaps  death.  Hatred  toward  other  people  Was 
thus  set  free  on  God. 

I pass  over  the  subsequent  transformations.  After  some 
further  attempts  to  save  the  blasphemous  phantasies,  these 
disappeared  completely.  The  healing,  however,  came  to  pass 
only  later. 

Plain  condensation  work  was  executed  by  the  unconscious, 
as  we  have  mentioned,  in  a category  of  witticisms  which  we 
call  “condensation  witticisms.”  From  the  great  collection  of 
Freud ’s  I will  select  an  example  from  Heine : The  proud  as- 


250 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


sertion  of  the  Jewish  chiropodist  and  lottery  collector,  Hya- 
cinth, that  he  had  been  treated  by  Baron  Rotschild  “ganz 
f amillionar.  ” The  poor  little  Jew,  under  whose  figure, 
Heine  portrays  himself,*  intends  to  say:  The  Baron  met  me 
familiarly  (familiar)  as  far  as  a millionaire  may — a thought 
which  certainly  often  passed  through  the  mind  of  the  poet  in 
the  house  of  his  distinguished  relative. 

A witticism  similarly  composed  appears  in  the  third  chapter 
of  the  same  writing  by  Heine:  Upon  remembering  his  little 
stepfatherland,  the  little  Jew  sighed:  “What  is  man?  One 
walking  satisfied  from  the  Altonaer  gate  to  the  Hamburg 
mountain  and  there  seeing  the  sights,  the  lions,  the  birds,  the 
‘Papagoyim,’  the  monkeys,  the  noted  men  . . . .”  “Papa- 
goyim” is  composed  by  amalgamation  of  “Papageien”  and 
“goyim,”  heathen,  contemptuous  Jewish  word  for  stranger. 
The  word  “Papa”  is  thus  wittily  joined  with  “goy.”  Be- 
hind lurks  again  Heine’s  distinguished  father-substitute,  the 
uncle,  w7ho  would  have  preferred  to  behave  as  a stranger 
toward  the  poorly  clad  poet  but  could  not,  because  he  was  a 
relative.  Under  the  “Papageien”  may  further  have  been 
understood  the  elegant  cousins  whom  Heine  now  denies  as 
strangers  (goyim)  to  him.  Thus  the  composite  word  con- 
tains a sneer  at  the  cold  comfort  of  his  relatives  and  at  his  near 
relations  to  these  people  created  by  his  birth,  and  his  distant 
relations  created  by  psychological  factors. 

Leo  Spitzer  has  pointed  out  the  condensation  as  important 
speech-forming  phenomenon  in  his  investigations  concerning 
“Die  Wortbildung  als  stilistisches  Mittel”  (Word  Formation 
as  Means  of  Style),  particularly  in  “Rabelais.”  t 

•Freud,  Witz,  p.  110.  To  Freud’s  examples,  I will  add  another: 
Chapter  6,  Heine  seizes  the  foot  of  the  beautiful  Franzeska;  chapter  8, 
Hyacinth  speaks  of  the  pleasure  of  holding  in  his  hands  the  little  white 
foot  of  the  beautiful  lady.  Thus  Heine  identifies  himself  with  his  comic 
hero. 

t Leo  Spitzer,  Die  Wortbildung  als  stilistisches  Mittel.  Exemplified 
in  Rabelais.  Halle,  1910.  (Compare  H.  Sachs,  Zbl.  I,  240). 


VAGINISMUS 


251 


(fi)  the  superimposed  material 

A chain  of  repressed  ideas  can  be  brought  to  common  ex- 
pression in  a manifestation  when  they  agree,  either  wholly  or 
in  some  peculiarity,  or  when  a common  speech  relation  exists 
among  them. 

A lady  of  some  thirty  years  afflicted  with  melancholia  and 
victim  of  an  unhappy  marriage,  has  suffered  since  the  begin- 
ning of  her  married  life,  sixteen  years  ago,  from  automatic 
contraction  of  the  vagina  (vaginismus).  Sexual  intercourse 
has  therefore  been  almost  entirely  denied  her,  from  which  cir- 
cumstance both  she  and  her  husband  suffer  severely.  The 
symptom  dated  from  a number  of  unconscious  motives : When 
three  and  a half  years  old,  she  was  carried  by  a man  on  his 
back  with  his  hand  placed  in  an  improper  position.*  A few 
years  later,  a brother  allowed  himself  improper  manipulations 
which  hurt  severely.  As  adult,  she  experienced  a similar 
treatment  from  another  relative  who  told  her  he  wished  a 
woman  as  tightly  built  as  possible.  Further,  she  feared  her 
husband  might  suffer  an  accident  from  her  (penis  captivus). 
Further,  she  wished  to  make  herself  attractive  to  him,  remain 
young  as  long  as  possible  and  force  him  to  strongest  aggres- 
sion. The  contraction  disappeared  completely,  the  attitude 
toward  life  became  fairly  normal.  The  analysis  was  prema- 
turely interrupted  by  the  patient’s  going  on  a journey  and 
yet  soon  after,  complete  health  appeared  without  further 
treatment. 

That  even  apparently  totally  different  trains  of  thought 
can  be  superimposed  on  one  another,  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing dream  of  a woman,  aged  thirty-one  years,  who  suffered 
from  spinal  syphilis : 

“I  was  drinking  water  from  a beautiful  fountain,  my  hands 

* The  trauna  seems  to  have  been  provoked.  The  patient  remembers 
that  she  previously  said  to  the  man  that  she  would  lie  down  and  sleep 
because  she  hoped  that  he  would  do  something  to  her.  Compare 
Abraham,  Das  Erleiden  sexueller  Jugendtraumen  als  Form  infantiler 
Sexualbetatigk.  Zbl.  f.  Nervenheilkunde  u.  Psvchiatrie  1907.  Nov. 
2d.  Number. 


252 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


serving  as  cups.  The  water  was  clear  but  shining  fish  and 
mussels  moved  in  it.  The  fountain  reservoir  looked  like  a 
gondola.  Suddenly  I stood  in  it  and  swept  a wall  in  a church- 
like, vaulted  building,  although  it  was  not  dirty.  In  this 
reservoir,  I climbed  higher  and  higher.  In  so  doing,  I was 
afraid  of  falling  down  and  held  on  to  the  wall.  My  husband 
stood  there.  I asked  myself  why  he  did  not  help  me.  When 
I finally  reached  the  top  in  great  anxiety,  it  cleared  up  beauti- 
fully. The  wall  went  still  higher.  I was  on  a platform,  how- 
ever. The  wall  disappeared  and  I in  great  anxiety  was  in  an 
evil-smelling  tunnel.  At  one  time,  I had  reached  the  top 
when  Pastor  P.  stood  by  me  and  consolingly  sought  to  allay 
my  anxiety  although  it  was  evident  that  he  had  it  too.  He 
traveled  with  me  in  the  depths  whereupon  I felt  air.  He 
blinked  his  eyes  a little  but  also  trembled  as  if  he  was  afraid. 
Then  the  darkness  was  dissipated.  A lattice  extended  to  the 
knees  and  I thought : There  I have  absolutely  no  footing.  We 
got  along  well,  however.  Below  lay  a beautiful  garden  which 
I saw  when  halfway  down,  somewhat  like  the  hill  on  which 
I live.  Below  stood  my  husband  laughing.” 

A real  analysis  was  impossible  since  the  woman  was  finish- 
ing a mercurial  treatment  for  the  spinal  trouble.  I guarded 
myself  well  from  telling  the  patient  the  meaning  of  the  dream 
which  was  told  to  me  without  my  asking  as  something  beauti- 
ful. I cautiously  obtained  a few  associations.  Much  was 
known  to  me. 

The  reservoir  resembled  my  pulpit  but  also  the  fountain  in 
front  of  my  church.  On  Sunday  before  the  dream,  I had 
preached  from  the  words  of  Jesus  as  given  in  John  iv.,  14: 
“Whosoever  drinketh  of  the  water  that  I shall  give  him  shall 
never  thirst.”  This  sermon  made  a strong  impression  on  the 
dreamer,  so  she  said.  The  hands  held  as  cups  express  in  the 
one-time  Catholic,  the  attitude  of  prayer. 

The  religious  phantasy  is  spun  out  further.  Standing  in 
the  pulpit  and  sweeping  the  wall  like  a true  servant,  the 
dreamer  felt  herself  lifted  heavemvard  which  gives  a good 
religious  meaning.  Further,  the  anxiety  over  falling  corre- 


ANALYSIS  OF  A DREAM 


253 


spends  to  the  well-known  fear  of  many  religious  persons  of 
falling  from  grace.  Her  husband,  when  anxiety  over  her  fu- 
ture came  upon  her,  could  not  quiet  her  by  religious  conver- 
sation. The  platform  reminded  her  of  a lookout  on  an  elevated 
place.  The  fear  of  new  darkness  appeared : A terrible  tunnel 
took  the  dreamer  down.  Still  the  pastor  consoled  and  con- 
ducted the  anxious  one  back  to  the  light.  To  the  one  with 
wavering  faith,  he  afforded  sure  help.  A Garden  of  Eden, 
the  longed-for  Paradise,  received  her  and  her  husband. 

This  much  I could  tell  the  woman.  More  would  have  robbed 
her  of  the  ha  mless  joy  in  her  poem  and  disquieted  her  mind. 
The  reader  will  probably  have  already  guessed  the  gross  erotic 
sense.  It  betrays  itself  already  in  the  fishes  and  mussels  of 
the  fountain  which  plainly  represent  masculine  and  feminine 
symbols. 

The  sweeping  of  the  church  wall  points  definitely  to  mas- 
turbation since  the  church  building  is  a typical  representation 
of  the  female,  usually  maternal  body.  The  church  recalls 
that  which  the  patient  as  a child  was  accustomed  to  visit  (in- 
fantile masturbation).  To  “reservoir,”  the  dreamer  asso- 
ciated besides  “gondola”  and  “pulpit”  also  “bed.”  The 
husband  did  not  help  her  out  of  the  anxiety  because  she  for- 
bids him  intercourse  or  because  he  is  impotent.  At  all  events, 
the  husband  intimated  to  me  that  intimate  relations  with  his 
wife  did  not  exist. 

The  dreamer  wishes  to  free  herself  autoerotically,  which  does 
not,  however,  gratify  her  (anxiety).  Suddenly  she  sticks  in 
the  foul-smelling  tunnel.  From  the  analysis  of  women  who 
are  ungratified  by  their  husbands,  who  are  overcome  in  tunnels 
with  severe  anxiety,  as  well  as  from  many  dreams,  we  know 
that  the  tunnel  is  the  symbol  of  the  vagina.  Our  dreamer 
formerly  suffered  from  syphilis,  from  which  disease  probably, 
tabes  dorsalis  has  steadily  developed.  The  memory  of  this 
critical  state  of  affairs  disturbs  the  unfortunate  woman.  Then 
she  daringly  allows  the  pastor  to  enter,  who  nevertheless,  is 
only  a cover-figure  for  another  man : It  is  the  seducer  who 
impregnated  and  infected  her  at  the  same  time;  as  immune, 


254; 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


therefore,  from  her  disease,  he  has  nothing  to  fear.  By  chance, 
he  had  the  same  forename  as  the  pastor.  Her  own  sexual  ex- 
citement is  accordingly  wished  upon  this  man.  Still,  a scruple 
is  aroused:  “I  have  no  support.”  But  at  the  same  time,  a 
lattice  reaching  to  the  knees  is  noticed.  In  reality,  the  pa- 
tient is  without  sensation  as  far  as  the  knees  because  of  destruc- 
tion of  the  spinal  cord.  Her  trouble  serves  the  former  prosti- 
tute as  protective  measure  against  the  fear  of  infection  for 
now  there  is  nothing  more  to  corrupt.  In  the  dream,  she  car- 
ries out  the  adultery  but  suffers  no  injury  therefrom. 

Thus,  the  superimposition  has  not  succeeded  badly  even 
though  certain  parts  of  the  dream  cannot  be  assigned  equally 
well  to  the  religious  and  erotic  connections. 

The  condensation  succeeded  by  the  aid  of  a symbolism  which 
gave  various  meanings  to  the  same  idea.  The  ‘ ‘ being  lifted,  ’ ’ 
“mounting,”  “flying,”  could  be  considered  in  the  religious 
as  well  as  in  the  erotic  sense,  likewise  the  “reservoir”  (gon- 
dola, bed),  the  tunnel,  the  falling,  the  lattice,  the  garden. 

Often  the  similarity  of  the  name  suffices  (“word-bridges,” 
here  for  example,  “being  lifted”)  or  another  relation  to  a 
common  third  factor,  to  condense  two  quite  distinct  ideas.* 

The  condensation  belongs  to  the  most  efficient  means  of  the 
unconscious  for  guarding  its  secret  and  still  affording  its  in- 
clinations a certain,  even  though  limited,  realization. 

7.  The  Disjection 

I designate  as  disjection  that  activity  contrasted  to  condensa- 
tion, whereby  a real  quantity  is  represented'  in  the  manifesta- 
tion by  a number  of  separate  ideas. 

Freud  has  already  pointed  out  that  often  in  a dream,  be- 
sides the  self,  other  persons  are  present  who  turn  out  in  the 
analysis  to  be  representations  of  the  person  himself,  t Frend 
shows  in  beautiful  examples  that  wit  also  utilizes  this  mechan- 
ism.! After  a too  modern  performance  of  “Antigone,”  the 

* Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  235. 

f Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  254. 

X Freud,  Witz,  p.  19  ff. 


MENTAL  TENDENCIES 


255 


Berliner  Witz  criticized:  “Antik!  0 nee!”  To  the  jesting 
question:  “What  is  the  best  in  the  examination  (exainen),” 
the  disjection  answers  “Ex  amen!” 

This  dissection  of  a person  is  often  found  in  art.  In  differ- 
ent pictures  by  Lukas  Cranach,  the  Christ,  for  example,  is 
expressed  simultaneously  in  several  figures,  as  crucified  one, 
as  risen  one,  serpent,  lamb.  In  each  figure,  the  hero  is  char- 
acterized according  to  one  particular  aspect. 

Poetry  also  makes  extensive  use  of  disjection.  It  creates 
a new  person  from  the  ribs  of  a man.  Thus  Goethe  appears 
simultaneously  in  Tasso  and  Antonio,  in  Faust  and  Mephis- 
topheles. 

Not  less  does  religion  like  splittings:  for  example,  Mary  is 
divided  by  Catholic  people  into  countless  distinct  personalities, 
a Mary  of  Einsiedeln,  Mary  of  the  Snow  (Rigi),  Mary  of  the 
Statue  (Canton  of  St.  Gallen),  etc. 

Even  phantasies  are  broken  up  into  various  separate  ideas 
when  they  are  elaborated  as  result  of  changed  relations  in  the 
repression.  One  of  my  analytic  patients,  for  example,  who 
revoked  and  remodeled  the  sadistic  phantasies  which  had  been 
created  under  the  reign  of  hatred,  produced  the  following  re- 
sult: Formerly,  he  pictured  the  analyst  as  an  idiotic  auc- 
tioneer standing  on  a high  tower,  opening  his  mouth  without 
making  a sound,  degrading  himself  for  a foolish  thing  and  had 
him  die ; now  from  this  picture,  two  day-dreams  developed : 
The  pastor  appeared  as  an  intellectual,  forceful  speaker  and 
as  an  aeronaut  who  sacrifices  himself  for  science.* 

C.  THE  PRINCIPAL  TENDENCIES 

Even  before  the  repression,  one  observes  two  principal  ten- 
dencies in  which  the  mental  life  exerts  itself:  a centrifugal 
and  a centipetal.  Diametrically  opposite  to-  the  endeavor 
which  is  directed  toward  reality  and  which  devotes  its  full 
interest  and  love  to  this  reality,  stands  the  endeavor  to  separ- 
ate itself  entirely  from  reality  and  to  make  its  own  gratifica- 

* Pfiater,  Analyt.  Unters,  ii.  d.  Psycholog.  d.  Hasses  u.  d.  Versohnung, 
Leipzig  and  Vienna,  1910,  p.  38. 


256 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


tion  and  enhancement  the  goal  of  all  action  and  thought. 
Ethics  long  ago  spoke  of  egoists  and  altruists,  the  philosophy 
of  a-priorists  and  empiricists,  and  psychology  recognized  the 
difference  between  the  shut-in  natures,  those  turned  inward, 
and  the  communicative  natures  which  gladly  unfold  to  the 
outer  world  and  embrace  it  in  love.  Neither  the  centrifugal 
nor  the  centripetal  tendency  ever  appears  entirely  by  itself. 
The  seemingly  centripetal  perception  often  depends  on  selfish, 
egocentric  wishes  which  have  selected  from  the  totality  of  pos- 
sible perceptions  just  those  which  enriched  the  given  charac- 
teristics with  other,  not  given  ones  and  interpreted  the  incom- 
plete picture  in  a particular  manner,  so  that  in  the  supposed 
perceptive  picture,  many  unseen  features  were  projected  into 
it,  etc.  Conversely,  the  world-renouncing  mystic  constantly 
betrays  his  consideration  for  his  environment ; in  its  favor,  he 
spins  his  delusion  of  grandeur  and  ideas  of  persecution,  as 
he  also  gets  his  material  for  his  ideas. 

Thus  every  person  takes  part  in  both  movements  and  that 
indeed  in  every  movement  of  his  action  and  experience.  Still 
there  exist  great  differences  in  the  distribution  of  the  tenden- 
cies. Many  persons  throw  their  emotions  and  interests  into 
the  outer  world  very  easily.  In  this,  it  often  happens  that  only 
the  surface  of  the  mental  life  follows  this  path,  the  depths  re- 
maining unmoved.  Such  persons  frequently  display  strong 
love-emotions,  but  the  glow  of  the  conscious  emotions  is  no 
proof  of  their  genuineness,  for  on  the  morrow,  they  may  per- 
haps have  flown.  This  peculiarity  marks  the  hysterical  indivi- 
dual in  particular.  Conversely,  one  meets  people  who  appar- 
ently have  neither  interest  nor  love  for  their  surroundings  and 
yet  are  capable  of  great  kindness,  indeed  of  considerable  sacri- 
fice for  it.  Likewise,  a person  who  was  happy  in  his  childhood, 
may,  as  a result  of  certain  inhibitions,  be  forced  violently  back 
into  his  inmost  self.  Hence  one  must  proceed  with  great  cau- 
tion in  assigning  individuals  to  this  or  that  category  and  in 
many,  probably  in  most  cases,  guard  against  such  classification. 
Extreme  cases  occur  and  may  then,  as  we  shall  see,  be  forced 
into  illness  when  one  endeavor  or  some  other  obstacle  presents 


MENTAL  TENDENCIES 


257 


itself  against  the  opposite  tendency.  But  among  patients  also,  * 
both  tendencies  often,  probably  usually,  appear  simultaneously 
so  that  the  introverted  individuals  for  example,  that  is,  people 
with  predominant  centripetal  tendency,  can  have  many  symp- 
toms which  usually  prevail  in  hysterical  individuals,  thus,  those 
people  with  whom  the  emotions  press  violently  outward,  and, 
conversely,  hysterical  individuals  show  in  many  symptoms,  for 
example,  twilight  states,  that  renunciation  of  reality  which 
constitutes  the  most  prominent  characteristic  of  introverted 
individuals. 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE  CONTENT  OF  THE  MANIFESTATIONS 
1.  Reminiscences 

When  we  find  a memory  in  a dream,  hysterical  phenomenon 
or  other  phenomenon,  which  we  have  to  consider  as  reaction 
of  an  unconscious  motive,  this  means : Something  in  the  pres- 
ent situation  agrees  with  something  in  the  past  or  should  agree 
with  it.  The  same  rule  holds  good  when  upon  closer  considera- 
tion, a manifestation  turns  out  to  be  a reminiscence. 

Heine’s  “Lorelei”  affords  a fine  example.  First,  a picture 
producing  a peculiar  effect  by  its  tone : 

“I  know  not  what  it  can  mean  that  I am  so  sad.”  The 
continuation  appears  exactly  as  if  the  poet  had  instituted  a 
little  autoanalysis  and  deciphered  his  sadness. 

“A  legend  from  the  olden  times  which  will  not  leave  my 
mind.”  The  legend  which  follows  plainly  accords  with  the 
sadness  because  it  conceals  its  relation  to  the  poet’s  affairs. 
Otherwise  it  would  leave  him  unmoved.  It  is  characteristic 
that  the  sadness  precedes  and  is  felt  at  first  as  mysterious. 
The  ballad  represents,  as  is  plainly  evident  from  many  analo- 
gies, the  poet’s  death-wish  created  by  unhappy  love,  as  fulfilled, 
in  the  same  manner  as  Goethe  executes  on  liis  hero  in  the  suffer- 
ing young  Werther,  his  suicidal  impulse  occasioned  by  the 
same  motive. 

Every  dream  when  it  contains  no  memories  as  such,'  leads 
immediately  upon  exploration  to  reminiscences.  Frequently, 
the  interpretation  is  an  assured  fact  when  the  dream  fragment 
has  been  inserted  into  its  original  connection  as  experienced. 
A young  girl  dreamed,  for  instance,  in  winter  that  she  was  sit- 
ting in  a public  garden.  The  analysis  gained  the  following 
associations:  “Last  summer,  I sat  in  such  a garden  with  my 

258 


REMINISCENCES 


259 


parents  and  a friend.  As  a child  of  one  year,  I was  often 
taken  by  our  beloved  servant  maid  into  a public  garden ; there 
she  played  constantly.  Afterwards,  the  vain  young  thing  put 
on  Mamma’s  best  clothes  and  looked  at  herself  in  the  mirror. 
Once  when  the  parents  were  away  traveling,  she  slept  in 
Mamma’s  bed.”  Later,  they  often  playfully  reproached  the 
child  for  being  so  frequently  in  the  public  garden  while  still 
so  small.  The  memory  of  that  maid’s  putting  herself  in 
the  mother ’s  place  is  closely  joined  to  the  previous  visit  to  the 
garden.  The  clinical  symptoms  of  the  dreamer  plainly  dis- 
close that  she  unconsciously  identifies  herself  with  the  maid 
and  likewise  .puts  herself  in  the  mother’s  place.  This  is  shown 
for  example  in  the  following  hallucination : At  night,  she  sees 
her  mother  in  night  dress  go  to  the  chest  to  open  it  with  the  key. 
She  calls  to  her  to  prevent  her  from  doing  what  she  intended. 
To  her  astonishment,  the  mother  sleeping  in  the  bed  beside  her 
daughter,  asks  what  is  the  matter  and  why  she  calls.  Some- 
what later,  the  girl  sees  the  mother  go  from  wardrobe  to 
window  and  sit  on  the  windowsill,  “perhaps  to  throw  herself 
out  of  the  window.” 

To  “chest,”  she  associated:  “She  wishes  to  get  a handker- 
chief or  bandage.  One  binds  up  wounds  in  cases  of  emergency 
with  handkerchiefs.  Once  when  I cut  my  finger,  I fainted. 
The  same  happened  when  I was  a very  small  child  at  the  den- 
tist ’s.  On  the  vacation  where  I was,  during  the  hallucination, 
the  menstrual  flow  was  always  absent.” 

The  girl  suffered  from  anxiety  over  blood  and  from  excessive 
menstruation  which  always  assumed  the  plain  character  of  a 
birth  pantomime. 

Chest  and  key  are  to  be  understood  as  female  and  male 
symbols  The  dreamer  envies  her  mother  her  position  in  wed- 
lock since  she  herself  has  an  incestuous  fixation  upon  the 
father.  The  mother  should  make  away  with  herself  in  order 
to  make  room  for  the  daughter. 

We  often  stumble  on  reminiscences  when  we  endeavor  to  get 
to  the  bottom  of  neurotic  phenomena.  I will  add  a few  ex- 
amples: In  the  first  hours  of  the  analysis,  it  struck  me  that 


860 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


the  woman  patient,  of  about  thirty  years,  suddenly  twitched 
slightly.  Upon  being  questioned,  she  said  that  she  suffered 
from  sudden  pain  in  the  back  and  had  some  weeks  before,  put 
herself  under  medical  treatment  for  this  trouble.  The  physi- 
cian thought  the  kidneys  were  out  of  order  although  the  urine 
showed  no  anomalies.  The  pain  often  ran  to  the  right  hip. 
[This  pain.]  “When  sixteen  years  old,  I was  grasped  about 
the  waist  by  a young  man,  right  at  the  point  that  is  painful 
now.  He  asked  for  a kiss.  This. I refused,  of  which  fact,  I 
was  later  very  proud.  When  I was  already  secretly  engaged 
to  my  husband,  his  friend  and  rival  likewise  demanded  a kiss, 
at  the  same  time  seizing  me  there.’ ’ The  lady  had  previously 
told  of  her  partiality  for  a physician  who  allowed  her  to  love 
him  (positive  transference).  Now  she- wishes  that  I should 
pay  her  court  even  if  only  that  she  may  show  her  blameless 
mind.  We  shall  see  later  that  the  analyst  or  any  other  educa- 
tor cannot  avoid  such  bestowal  of  emotion.  Our  ease  teaches 
us  that  the  reproduction  of  an  earlier  experience  can  represent 
the  wish  for  its  repetition.  This  connection  is  always  to  be 
found. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  analytic  investigation,  the  remin- 
iscences were  designated  as  a kind  of  foreign  body  which  lies 
under  the  threshold  of  consciousness  and  asserts  itself  from 
time  to  time.  To-day,  we  know  that  there  is  no  such  pure 
reproduction  of  an  existing,  disturbing  content  but  that  re- 
vivification corresponds  to  certain  needs  and  fulfills  a tele- 
ological mission.  Before  we  present  the  proof  for  this  asser- 
tion, we  will  collect  a number  of  new  facts. 

2.  Identification  and  Projection 

Even  in  normal  life  we  put  ourselves  countless  times  in 
other  people’s  places,  often  without  realizing  it,  or  even  in 
places  of  lifeless  objects.  The  esthetic  effects,  the  reactions 
of  the  moral  consciousness  depend  in  great  part  upon  such  sub- 
stitutions or  identifications. 

I will  first  select  an  example  from  the  field  of  poetry : “ The . 
Falling  Leaf,  ” by  K.  F.  Meyer : 


IDENTIFICATION  AND  PROJECTION  261 

“To-day,  an  axe  sounded  the  whole  morning  long 
And  continued  till  evening.  The  master  is  building 
Only  a shack,  still  I would  like  to  see 
Is  it  growing,  is  it  beginning!” 

The  fatally  sick  knight  who  speaks  these  words  is  glad  of  the 
beginning  because  he  feels  his  own  forces  failing  and  puts 
himself  in  the  place  of  that  which  is  growing. 

“There  was  a carpenter  who  worked  nobly 
And  squarely  hewed  his  timber. 

In  good  faith  the  man  endeavored 
Until  the  water  from  his  brow  did  rim. 

At  evening  the  master  carpenter  came, 

A good-natured  old  man  with  long  curly  beard, 

He  touched  the  workman  who  never  wished  to  rest 
Upon  the  shoulder,  saying:  “Good  man,  rest  now!” 

Now  the  place  became  empty,  I,  however,  slipped  in 
And  seated  myself  on  the  beam. 

Contemplating  the  hewn  fir-stick 
I pondered  over  my  own  day’s  work.” 

Here  the  comparison  of  his  own  life  with  the  timber  is  plain : 
Both  have  been  carved  out  with  infinite  exertion  and  lie 
there  incomplete;  from  both,  the  active  workman  has  been 
called  away  against  his  will.  The  timber  consoles  in  so  far 
that  it  attains  its  purpose  the  following  day.  To  this  revery, 
the  hope  is  easily  joined  that  the  life-work  may  also  be  com- 
pleted. 

“I  was  staring  down,  lost  in  thought. 

When  a falling  leaf  struck  my  shoulder. 

I shuddered  when  I spied  the  leaf 

As  if  the  master’s  hand  had  touched  me, 

And  I thought:  Enough!  The  sun  is  low, 

Go  in,  thou  workman,  to  the  rest  of  thy  Lord!” 

The  cottage  is  identified  with  the  carpenter,  the  fallen  leaf 
on  his  shoulder  with  the  hand  of  the  master  and  so  the  cessa- 
tion of  work  is  interpreted  as  a kind  of  hopeful  invitation  to 
a time  of  rest. 

Thus  all  characteristics  of  a process  which  primarily  has 


262 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


no  direct  relation  to  the  knight,  gain  by  sympathy,  identifica- 
tion or  whatever  we  may  name  the  psychological  process,  an 
intimate  relation.  The  building  artisan,  the  tireless  workman 
who  hates  to  leave  his  work  unfinished,  the  shack,  the  touched 
shoulder,  the  hewn  fir-stick,  they  are  all  representations  of  the 
cottage  itself  and  more  exactly  the  embodiment  of  inhibited 
endeavors  of  high  valence,  the  so-called  libido-symbols.  In- 
deed the  old  man  who  calls  to  rest  from  work  and  the  warning 
leaf  expressing  a wish  which  slumbers  beside  the  preceding 
ones  in  the  depths  of  the  soul,  are  also  libido-symbols  in  which 
the  hero  finds  himself  again. 

We  are  dealing  here,  not  only  with  an  “Einfiihlung,”  * to 
use  Yolkelt’s  expression,  but  with  a more  or  less  clear  thought 
process  in  which  one  compares  himself  with  some  object  on 
a basis  of  certain  similarities  and  puts  himself  in  its  place  to 
appropriate  to  himself  the  advantages  which  accrue  from  the 
comparison.  The  similarity  which  is  present  is  utilized  to 
gain  pleasant  prospects  for  the  undecided  things  in  the  per- 
son’s life,  which  are  solved  in  favorable  manner  in  the  object 
of  comparison.  In  this  substitution  or  self-installation  in  the 
place  of  an  object,  thinking,  feeling  and  willing  have  a share. 

In  the  ethical  field,  sympathy  is  the  same  kind  of  an  activity. 
Unfortunately,  in  our  representation,  we  cannot  support  our- 
selves by  a recognized  psychological  theory  but  must  ourselves 
seek  out  our  conception.  Schopenhauer,  as  we  know,  believes 
that  sympathy  is  founded  on  the  knowledge  that  the  person 
cherishing  sympathy  is  identified  with  the  one  pitied,  on  the 
“Tat  twam  asi”  (This,  you  are).  Adam  Smith  holds  as  a pre- 
supposition of  sympathy  that  we  put  ourselves  in  the  place  of 
the  other:  “We  think  ourselves  over  into  his  body,  we  become 
in  some  measure  he  himself  and  accordingly  build  for  our- 
selves a concept  of  his  emotions,  indeed  we  feel  something 
similar  to  his  emotions  although  in  much  weaker  intensity.” 

This  theory  arouses  an  opponent  in  Storring  who  says: 
“Such  a confusion  of  our  standpoint  with  that  of  the  sufferer 
does  not  occur  in  sympathy:  In  the  case  of  sympathy  with 

* No  exact  English  equivalent,  something  like  sympathetic  insight. 


UNCONSCIOUS  IDENTIFICATION 


263 


a man,  we  do  not  at  all  imagine  what  we  would  feel  if  we  were 
in  his  place.  The  situation  is  rather:  When  we  see  anyone 
suffer,  the  perception  of  the  physical  phenomena  which  ac- 
company suffering  or  of  the  causes  of  the  same  brings  about 
the  reproduction  of  emotional  conditions  which  have  arisen 
with  us  ourselves  from  similar  causes  or  which  were  present 
under  similar  physical  concomitant  phenomena.  This  repro- 
duction of  emotional  states  on  a basis  of  perceptions  in  a per- 
son does  not  presuppose,  as  may  be  seen,  the  idea  that  we 
endure  the  pains  of  the  sufferer  but  only  the  perception  of 
the  accompanying  phenomena  of  the  pain  or  of  the  causes  by 
which  the  pain  was  produced.  The  emotions  reproduced  in 
us  are  then  thought  into  the  sufferer;  we  do  not,  however, 
“think  ourselves  over  into  his  body.”  * 

This  theory  leaves  the  principal  thing  unexplained:  If  I 
mentally  transfer  to  another  the  emotions  produced  in  me 
from  symptoms  perceived  in  the  other,  why  does  there  so  often 
remain  with  me  such  severe  grief?  Why  does  sympathy  as- 
sume such  highly  varied  degrees  of  intensity  according  as  it 
concerns  a savage  of  the  stone  age  or  a beloved  relative  ? 

In  sympathy,  I treat  the  sorrows  and  joys,  the  intellectual, 
esthetic  and  ethical  preferences  of  another  as  things  highly 
important  to  me.  It  must  be  admitted  with  Storring  that  a 
clearly  conscious  “putting  one’s  self  in  place  of  another”  is 
not  necessarily  present  in  sympathy,  although  sympathy  often 
receives  a reinforcement  when  one  construes  this  idea.  But 
it  may  be  asserted  just  as  surely  that  dimly  consciously  or  un- 
consciously, the  substitution  pointed  out  by  Smith  prevails  in 
general. 

In  substantiation  of  this  opinion,  I proceed  from  analytic 
results. 

A young  merchant  developed  passionate  fondness  for  Na- 
poleon. He  not  only  studied  with  boundless  industry  a mass 
of  works  on  the  great  emperor  but  he  allowed  his  whole  out- 
look on  the  world  to  be  determined  by  the  Corsican.  In  spite 
of  ail  ridicule  by  comrades,  he  was  all  the  time  taming  the 

* G.  Storring,  Moralphilos.  Streitfragen  I,  p.  17. 


264 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


conversation  to  his  hero  and  seemed  absolutely  inaccessible 
to  other  matters.  The  young  man  is  an  hysterical  individual. 
For  some  years,  he  has  suffered  from  difficulties  in  swallowing. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  analysis  he  could  not  in  general  swal- 
low solid  food.  The  exploration  showed  in  a few  minutes  that 
the  patient  cannot  and  will  not  swallow  all  kinds  of  demands 
of  his  father,  whereupon  the  disturbance  in  his  throat  disap- 
peared for  good.*  On  the  other  hand,  the  admiration  for 
Napoleon  rather  increased.  Its  chief  motives  were  as  follows : 

(1)  The  emperor  is  a substitute  for  the  detested  father. 

(2)  Napoleon  was  small  of  stature;  his  admirer  is  the  same. 

(3)  The  great  conqueror  triumphed  over  his  enemies;  our 
patient  is  filled  with  hatred  for  all  comrades  and  mankind  in 
general,  his  ambition  knows  no  bounds. 

(4)  The  profile  of  the  young  fanatic  bears  an  unmistakable 
resemblance  to  that  of  his  model.  These  motives  worked  for 
the  most  part  unconsciously.  That  a comparison  existed,  is 
not  to  be  denied. 

Hate  and  love  often  depend  on  unconscious  transpositions  in 
the  sense  of  projection  of  the  ego  upon  the  people  in  question. 
An  example  of  this  kind  of  origin  for  a passionate  love  for  a 
nurse,  I have  already  given  (207).  That  hatred  can  arise 
similarly,  I shall  show  later. 

Ferenczi  formulates  the  statement:  “The  neurotic  indivi- 
dual is  constantly  searching  for  objects  with  which  to  identify 
himself,  upon  which  he  may  transfer  his  emotions.  ” t I do 
not  think  that  this  statement  applies  to  all  psychoneurotics. 
For  the  hysterical  type,  it  is  certainly  correct.  Another  mode 
of  identification  exists  in  dementia  praecox.  Maeder  mentions 
the  exteriorization  by  which  the  patient  thinks  he  can  per- 
ceive his  separate  organs  in  the  reality.  For  example,  the 

* This  recovery  also  occurred  too  quickly,  since  it  made  further 
analysis  seem  superfluous  to  the  neurotic  individual.  The  youth  suf- 
fered from  his  attachment  to  his  father  afterwards  as  before,  so  that 
his  attitude  toward  life  was  entirely  false.  Goethe  noted  in  his  diary 
on  May  27,  1811:  “Psychic  cure  of  hiccup  in  a youth.”  Cited  by 
Stekel,  Nerv.  Angstzustande,  p.  7. 

f S.  Ferenczi,  Introjektion  u.  ubertragung.  Jahrb.  I,  p.  429. 


UNCONSCIOUS  IDENTIFICATIONS 


265 


manipulations  of  the  gas  and  water  pipes  is, for  one  of  Maeder ’s 
analytic  patients  an  irritation  of  his  nerves  and  vessels.*  But 
this  takes  us  to  projection. 

One  can  also  be  so  closely  united  with  a work,  unconsciously, 
that  we  can  almost  speak  of  a substitution. 

Under  the  influence  of  unconscious  mental  impulses,  the  nor- 
mal individual  also  countless  times  identifies  persons  or  other 
parts  of  his  environment  with  one  another.  One  individual 
is  sympathetic  to  us  at  first  glance  without  our  being  able  to 
assign  any  reason  for  the  fact.  If  we  analyze,  perhaps  the 
likeness  to  a beloved  person  becomes  conscious,  of  whom  we 
did  not  think  before.  Thus  we  begin  a transposition  of  per- 
sons. 

As  a matter  of  fact,  the  analyst  is  easily  identified,  uncon- 
sciously or  from  unconscious  motives,  with  other  persons. 
Amusing  externalities  aid  the  substitution.  We  met  one  ex- 
ample in  the  case  of  the  patient  who  saw  in  her  teacher  as  well 
as  in  other  persons,  the  eyes  of  her  seducer,  although  those 
organs  looked  quite  different  in  color,  size  and  position  (246). 
In  such  cases,  the  real  reason  lies  deeper : The  patient  wishes 
a renewal  of  the  earlier  experiences. 

The  young  catatonic  patient,  who  was  pathologically 
ashamed  of  his  nose  (122)  repeatedly  said  to  me:  “I  see  dis- 
tinctly in  you  the  physician  who  operated  on  me  for  phimosis ; 
I know  perfectly  well  that  you  are  another  man  but  for  me 
you  are  that  physician.” 

How  fateful  may  be  the  outcome  of  such  identifications,  I 
may  show  in  a case  cured  by  analysis.  It  concerned  a boy  of 
seventeen  years  whom  I had  cured  of  three  nervous  tics  in 
four  consultations,  a year  previously.  At  that  time,  only  the 
relation  to  boys  was  discussed.  For  three  years,  the  boy  had 
blinked  his  eyes  every  few  seconds,  turned  up  his  nose  and 
pulled  the  corners  of  his  mouth  upward.  Three  physicians 
and  Christian  Science  were  unable  to  help  him.  From  his 

* Maeder,  Psycholog.  Unters.  an  Dementia  praecox-Kranken.  Jahr- 
bueh  II,  p.  241.  Maeder.  Zur  Entst.  d.  Symbolik  im  Traum,  in  der 
Dementia  praecox,  etc.  Zbl.  I,  p.  3S3. 


266 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


dreams,  it  was  revealed  that  he  had  fallen  out  with  his  com- 
rades since  they  refused  him  on  account  of  alleged  scandal. 
It  made  him  especially  angry  that  they  kept  sexual  enlighten- 
ment from  him.  His  twitching  said:  “I  don’t  want  to  see 
you  and  despise  your  obscenity.”  Naturally,  I did  not  con- 
sider the  youth  fully  freed  after  the  little  analysis  of  symptoms 
but  had  no  occasion  to  urge  him  to  continue  the  pedagogic 
course. 

The  course  of  the  second  treatment  was  much  more  tedious. 
The  youth  said  that  he  could  not  concentrate  himself  and  that 
he  hated  his  parents.  Melancholia  was  also  mentioned.  Some 
days  before,  the  young  introverted  individual  had  retired  from 
a course  in  dancing  because  the  big,  strapping  fellow,  in  spite 
of  eager  desire,  could  not  bring  himself  to  overcome  his  bash- 
fulness and  speak  a word  to  a girl.  For  two  or  three  years,  he 
had  been  a victim  of  bashfulness.  Also  with  a young  and 
pretty  lady  boarder,  with  whom  he  was  in  love,  he  never  spoke 
a word  and  pretended  indifference  toward  her.  If  he  passed  a 
girl,  tears  came  to  his  eyes  and  he  felt  ashamed.  This  painful 
inhibition  in  speech  even  extended  to  a comrade  who  had  two 
sisters.  With  the  other  boys,  he  had  been  on  good  terms  since 
the  earlier  fragmentary  analysis. 

One  of  his  first  dreams  was : “I  was  with  a crazy  old  man 
whom  I led  by  the  arm,  in  front  of  a cemetery,  the  gate  of  which 
formed  an  obstacle.  Suddenly  we  were  in  the  cemetery,  how 
it  happened  I do  not  know;  you  came  from  a side  alley  and 
took  the  old  man  into  custody;  I left  you  alone.” 

[The  old  man.]  “A  comic  figure  in  the  ‘Fliegenden  Blat- 
tern.’  A stout  man  who  wished  to  dine  with  a count  and  then 
also  sup  with  him.  The  father  of  our  lady  boarder  was  also 
stout,  his  oval  face  and  his  beard  resembled  those  of  the  dream 
figure.  He  was  our  guest  a month  ago.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  color  of  his  face  was  sallow  like  my  mother’s.  Further, 
the  nervous  movements  and  the  constant  talking  did  not  belong 
to  the  boarder’s  father.”  [Nervous  movements,  much  talk- 
ing.] “That  agrees  exactly  with  my  father.” 

In  explanation,  I will  borrow  from  the  chapter  which  gives 


FIXATION  UPON  PARENTS 


267 


us  information  concerning  the  meaning  of  manifestations 
(Chapter  XIII) : The  dream  represents  a secret  (unconscious, 
latent)  wish  as  fulfilled.  The  dreamer  paints  his  father  as 
a crazy,  helpless  old  man  in  the  cemetery  where  I am  also 
kindly  provided  for.  The  same  fate  befalls  the  hated  mother 
and  the  innocent  guest.  Why  the  latter?  As  father  of  the 
beloved  girl,  he  is  the  father’s  double  (father-in-law). 

It  is  not  determined  that  the  hard-hearted  son  really  wishes 
his  father  dead.  As  we  have  noticed  and  found  confirmed 
repeatedly  the  father  is  only  an  image  (Imago).  The  neurotic 
wishes  to  set  free  his  libido  which  is  joined  to  the  father  by 
making  him  the  object  of  caricature.  He  seeks  therefore,  to 
bury  a bit  of  his  own  bondage. 

Whence,  however,  has  come  the  hatred  for  the  father  who 
is  a good-natured,  generous,  mild-mannered  man  without  any 
austerity  ? I exerted  myself  to  find  the  reason  but  could  ascer- 
tain nothing  except  jealousy  oyer  the  mother.  The  boy  slept 
during  his  first  eight  years  in  the  same  rooms  with  his  parents. 
Because  of  his  sickliness,  he  was  pampered  by  his  mother  who 
was  decidedly  hysterical.  He  was  continually  taken  into  bed 
with  her.  To  the  mother,  he  paid  the  compliment  when  quite 
small:  “You  are  the  prettiest  woman  in  the  whole  world.” 
And  to  this  judgment,  he  still  held,  although  the  mother  is  dis- 
tinguished rather  by  lack  of  good  looks. 

It  soon  became  evident  from  the  dreams  that  the  bashful 
youth  identified  the  girls  who  had  impressed  him,  with  his 
mother  or  saw  the  latter  in  the  girls.  Hence  the  girls  bore 
traits  of  the  mother  picture,  for  example,  the  aprons  of  the 
mother. 

As  chief  determinant  of  the  alienation,  I found  a sexual 
phantasy  which  was  long  kept  silent.  Finally  the  youth  re- 
vealed his  secret.  For  a long  time  previously,  he  had  known 
that  he  suffered  much  from  masturbation.  I had  endeavored 
to  help  him  with  the  usual  assurances  and  advice  but  unfor- 
tunately without  result.  Finally,  the  analysis  attained  the 
goal  here  too.  It  showed  that  an  obsessional  idea  underneath 
the  onanism  which  naturally  brought  to  naught  all  good  reso- 


268  THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 

lutions:  In  phantasy,  the  boy  lay  beside  a girl  (usually 
clothed)  in  bed  and  clung  to  her.  This  scene  immediately 
called  up  the  memory  of  the  almost  daily  morning  visits  which 
the  child  had  made  to  his  mother.  The  sexuality  of  the  youth 
was  thus  anchored  fast  to  the  infantile  desires  and  its  normal 
development  had  been  interrupted.  He  was  ashamed  in  the 
presence  of  girls  because  in  his. phantasies  he  misused  them 
(really  the  boarder)  and  saw  in  them  the  sexually-desired 
mother. 

Also,  improper  wishes  were  directed  toward  his  sister  which 
wishes  had  derived  their  form  from  infantile  bath  scenes.  Of 
the  sexual  life,  the  youth  held  the  most  disgusting  ideas.  The 
explanation  exerted  a saving  influence  on  him. 

The  treatment  took  five  months  and  proceeded  with  great 
difficulty  since  the  not  particularly  intelligent  youth  revealed 
only  very  unwillingly  the  identification  of  the  father  and 
analyst  and  at  first  produced  very  few  associations.  Now,  he 
is  on  excellent  terms  with  his  parents  and  behaves  gallantly 
toward  young  ladies.  His  capacity  for  work  has  become  en- 
tirely normal. 

A typical  example  which  illuminates  many  life  histories, 
is  the  following:  A widow  of  thirty-seven  years,  subnormal 
intelligence,  begged  me  for  consolation  for  severe  anxiety  con- 
ditions and  religious  depressions.  She  suffered  from  fear  that 
God  did  not  care  about  her,  perhaps  He  did  not  exist  at  all. 
Accordingly,  her  religion  was  in  profound  need.  The  Sunday 
religious  service  she  considered  the  finest  hour  of  the  week. 
Since  she  seemed  too  unintelligent  for  analysis,  I endeavored 
to  aid  her  with  advice  and  friendly  encouragement.  The  re- 
sult was  unsuccessful.  I therefore  investigated  her  life  history 
which  was  only  slightly  known  to  me. 

The  widow  had  lost  her  husband  five  years  before,  a drunk- 
ard, about  twenty-two  years  older  than  she,  who  did  not  trouble 
himself  about  her  inter  copulam.  Since  then,  she  has  exer- 
cised an  extreme  grave  cult  and  clung  passionately  to  the  man 
who  had  always  treated  her  badly.  She  refused  all  court- 
ships and  lived  only  in  her  sorrow.  On  account  of  pains  in  her 


MOTIVES  FOR  IDENTIFICATIONS 


269 


pelvis,  she  had  both  ovaries  extirpated  but  experienced — like 
so  many  hystericals  who  have  been  operated  on — no  diminution 
in  her  suffering. 

The  infantile  experiences  solved  the  riddle.  The  patient 
had  a drunken  father  who  bothered  himself  little  about  his 
family.  He  was  somewhat  taller  than  she  with  black  hair  and 
beard.  The  girl  could  not  bear  her  mother  and  therefore 
transferred  so  much  the  more  love  to  the  father  who  left  so 
much  to  be  desired  in  other  things.  A sister,  eleven  years 
her  elder,  she  loved,  according  to  her  own  phrase,  “abnormally 
fervently.”  To  her,  she  confided  everything  and  found  com- 
plete understanding.  Then  the  mother-substitute  became  tu- 
berculous and  passed  quickly  away. 

When  she  was  face  to  face  with  death,  our  hysterical  patient 
became  engaged  in  passionate  devotion  tp  her  future  husband 
who  strikingly  resembled  in  stature,  hair,  beard  and  other 
characteristics  the  father  who  had  now  been  dead  nine  years 
and  who  had  the  same  faults  of  character.  Thus  one  sees: 
The  love  inhibited  by  the  threatened  departure  of  the  mother- 
substitute,  turns  to  the  father-substitute.  The  girl  was  a 
female  CEdipus  like  so  many  others. 

A part  of  her  love  was  directed  toward  God.  After  the 
death  of  her  husband,  strong  sexual  needs  asserted  themselves. 
Hence  anxiety.  Her  religion  could  not  afford  her  sufficient 
father-love  and  the  sexual  demands  stilled  by  the  father-sub- 
stitute craved  for  more  than  piety.  Thus  the  bounds  of  capa- 
city for  sublimation  were  plainly  transcended. 

One  often  meets  similar  identifications.  A student  of  phi- 
losophy, aged  twenty-three,  fell  in  love  with  a teacher  aged 
forty.  He  perceived  the  unsuitabieness  of  this  love  but  could 
not  free  himself  from  it.  The  conversation  took  the  following 
course:  [Is  your  mother  still  living?]  “Yes.”  [Then  you 
are  probably  not  on  good  terms  with  her.]  “Yes.  How  did 
you  know  that?”  [Because  you  seek  her  love  in  a mother- 
substitute.]  The  youth  saw  his  identification  at  once. 

One  might  ask  whether  the  expression,  “identification,”  is 
altogether  happy  for  the  process  described.  If  I unconsciously 


270 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


unite  two  persons  in  one  figure,  I do  not  wish  to  express  their 
absolute  identity  but  only  their  comparison  in  this  or  that 
regard.  Perhaps  the  name  substitution  or  interchange  would 
be  preferable.  But  these  terms  also  have  their  defects,  since 
often  a substitute  for  the  object  indicated  in  the  manifestation 
in  question,  is  not  present  in  the  new  figure  because  that  first 
object  retains  its  importance.  Therefore,  I keep  the  name 
“identification”  in  spite  of  its  deficiencies  but  use  the  other 
expressions  as  well. 

The  motives  of  the  substitution  may  be  of  different  kinds. 
Frequently,  the  wish  finds  expression:  “0  were  I such  an 
one.”  I knew  a student  who  successively  imitated  in  striking 
manner  the  teachers  he  admired.  From  one,  he  borrowed  the 
habit  of  constantly  carrying  a key  in  his  hand  on  the  street, 
from  another,  old-fashioned  collars,  the  procuring  of  which 
must  have  given  him  not  a little  trouble,  the  third,  he  copied 
so  in  accent,  use  of  eyes  and  manner  of  speech  that  the  two 
men  were  mistaken  for  each  other.  One  hysterical  girl  assumed 
with  all  its  peculiarities  the  migraine  of  her  mother,  in  whose 
place,  she  would  have  liked  to  be. 

In  other  cases,  the  substitution  of  one’s  own  person  is  ex- 
plained by  sympathy,  in  which  the  literal  and  the  figurative 
significance  of  the  expression  work  together  beautifully.  Sym- 
pathy as  inclination  leads  to  sympathy  = to  suffer  with  the 
beloved.  Here,  a powerful  “Einfiihlung”  * occurs. 

In  this  manner,  the  mystic,  Margaretha  Ebner  f (1291- 
1351)  identified  herself  with  Jesus  very  plainly  in  a number 
of  hysterical  symptoms,  as  appears  from  her  phantasies.  She 
suffered  from  inability  to  stand  and  to  walk,  from  pains  in 
head  and  teeth,  from  hoarseness,  stitch  in  the  heart  and  in  the 
hands,  from  the  sensation  of  having  all  her  limbs  broken,  in- 
tolerance against  being  touched  (“Noli  me  tangere”),  from 
the  feeling  of  suspense,  from  death-marks  on  the  hands,  from 
the  utterance  of  cries  and  other  imitations. 

A young  student  whose  brother  had  died  from  subcostal 

* See  foot-note  on  page  262. 

f Pfiater,  Hysterie  u.  Mystik  bei  Marg  Ebner.  Zbl.  I,  pp.  468-485. 


HYSTERICAL  IMITATIONS 


271 


abscess,  was  stricken  on  the  funeral  day  with  an  obstinate  pain 
in  the  same  region.  An  analysis  was  not  made. 

I have  already  described  a swelling  of  the  tongue  which  a 
son  imitated  from  his  mother,  the  mother  from  a friend  of  her 
youth  (177).  Probably  substitution  existed  there  also. 

An  hysterical  boy  of  sixteen  with  introversion  phenomena, 
was  seized  during  the  analysis  with  a loud  snapping  or  crack- 
ing in  the  joint  of  the  lower  jaw  The  trouble  which  was 
plainly  audible  even  at  some  distance  when  he  opened  his 
mouth,  became  so  unpleasant  that  mastication  was  almost  im- 
possible. It  occurred  to  the  boy  that  his  pretty  aunt,  aged 
thirty -five,  had  been  subject  to  exactly  the  same  trouble  and 
likewise  only  on  one  side.  This  aunt,  he  loved  very  much  and 
regretted  that  his  father  had  not  married  her.  That  did  not 
exclude  his  having  considerable  strife  with  her.  After  I had 
made  a visit  to  his  family,  the  cracking  suddenly  stopped  until 
he  came  to  my  house,  pretendedly  from  fear  that  I would  dis- 
close something  of  his  inclination  to  his  mother  and  aunt. 
As  closer  determination,  I found:  The  pretty  aunt  liked  to 
eat  nuts ; the  nephew  admired  a comrade  who  could  crack  nuts 
in  his  teeth.  (The  father  often  hid  the  nut-cracker.)  The 
grandfather  forbade  this  practice  since  it  might  lead  to  blind 
ness.  The  cracking  in  the  joint  realized  among  other  things 
the  wish  to  crack  nuts  for  his  aunt  in  order  to  gain  her  favor. 
The  patient  had,  however,  other  nuts  to  crack:  He  had  no 
pleasant  relations  to  school  and  comrades,  parents  and  brothers 
and  sisters.  He  did  not  know  what  would  become  of  him. 
The  aunt  frequently  used  the  expression:  “I  must  always 
crack  nuts  for  others,”  which  meant:  “to  submit,  suffer,  re- 
move difficulties  for  others.”  The  nephew  said  the  same  of 
himself.  Immediately  before  the  outbreak  of  the  disturbance, 
the  aunt  had  related  that  when  young  she  had  to  live  in  a 
crowded  attic  and  suffer  injustice  from  her  sister.  Roth  things 
applied  to  the  nephew  also,  particularly  the  strife  with  the 
sister.  Finally,  the  cracking  recalled  the  memory  of  a game 
that  he  often  played  with  his  sister : The  two  children  wound 
a long  thread  about  a spool  which  they  rubbed  and  twirled 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


272 

while  they  held  the  plaything  in  front  of  the  ear  on  the  joint 
of  the  jaw.  Then  one  heard  a cracking  “as  of  cannons.” 
Now,  the  youth  consoled  himself:  The  war  (Krieg)  with  the 
sister  is,  in  spite  of  its^noise  only  like  the  cracking  (Krach) 
in  the  jaw  caused  by  the  noise  of  the  plaything.  Following 
these  conclusions  reached  in  four  consultations,  the  symptom 
remained  away  for  good. 

In  this  case,  I cannot  possibly  assume  that  the  nephew 
found  something  worthy  of  imitation  in  the  situation  of  his 
aunt. 

Freud  describes  a third  type  of  hysterical  identification: 
“One  patient  has  her  attack  to-day;  directly  it  is  known  to 
the  others  that  a letter  from  home,  reviving  the  love  trouble 
and  the  like,  is  the  cause  of  it.  Their  sympathy  is  aroused, 
it  is  carried  out  in  the  following  conclusion  which  does  not 
enter  consciousness : If  one  can  have  such  attacks  from  such 
causes,  so  I too  can  have  such  attacks  for  I have  these  occa- 
sions. ” * I confess  that  I have  never  ferreted  out  this  un- 
conscious  reflection  and  do  not  consider  an  uninterested  con- 
elusion  from  analogy  as  sufficient  motive  for  symptom  forma- 
tion. According  to  Freud’s  opinion,  there  must  certainly  be 
instinctive  impulses  present  as  we  demonstrate  them  in  the 
covetous  and  sympathetic  identification. 

Of  the  projections,  one  case  is  especially  important:  The 
transpositions  of  wishfulfillments  which  one  cherishes,  upon 
other  people.  It  is  present  most  frequently  in  paranoia  and 
its  chief  forms,  the  delusions  of  grandeur  and  persecution. 
A patient  feels  herself  persecuted  because  all  the  gentlemen  in 
the  trolley  car  speak  only  of  her  bad  conduct.  She  wishes 
so  to  live  but  does  not  dare.  The  gentlemen  express  what  she 
herself  must  deny.  The  normal  individual  also  often  sees 
others  as  he  wishes  them.  He  thinks  to  read  in  their  minds 
and  yet  only  projects  himself  into  them. 


♦Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  109. 


SYMBOLISM 


273 


3.  Symbolism 

From  the  beginning,  Freud  insisted  upon  the  assertion  that 
the  repressed  material  now  and  then  procures  symbolical  ex- 
pression. A beautiful  example  is  that  of  the  lady  who  had 
suffered  for  fifteen  years  from  facial  neuralgia.  All  external 
means  of  treatment  failed:  electric  cauterization,  alkaline 
waters,  elimination  methods,  teeth  extraction.  Finally,  the 
trauma  was  revealed  in  an  illness  of  her  husband’s,  in  the 
narration  of  which,  the  sufferer  seized  himself  by  the  cheek, 
cried  out  with  pain  and  said : ‘ ‘ That  was  to  me  like  a blow 
in  the  face.”  Over  this  repression,  which  naturally  formed 
neither  the  first  link  in  the  pathological  chain  nor  the  real 
cause  of  the  disease,  but  only  the  exciting  and  form-giving  oc- 
casion, other  repressions  had  been  superimposed.  The  same 
hysterical  patient  suffered  from  pains  in  the  feet  which  ren- 
dered walking  impossible  for  her.  These  pains  had  appeared 
at  the  moment  when  the  house-physician  offered  her  his  arm 
and  she  was  overcome  by  the  fear  whether  she  could  ‘ ‘ appear 
correctly  ’ ’ in  strange  society.*  ( One  notices  the  word-bridges : 
“blow  in  the  face”  and  “appear.”) 

Such  processes,  Freud  terms  “symbolizations  by  means  of 
verbal  expression.”  We  have  found  them  substantiated  in 
a very  considerable  number  of  analytic  results.  I mention 
the  dumbness,  dimness  of  vision,  astasia,  tactile  hallucination 
on  the  breast,  as  manifestation  of  the  thoughts:  “I  can  no 
longer  speak,  everything  is  dark  before  me,  I hang  only  by  a 
thread”  (31).  I mention  further  the  hysterical  crown  of 
thorns  (36),  the  obsession  for  washing  (68),  the  aversion 
for  cleansing  work  (78),  the  finger  movements  under  the  nose 
(78),  the  anxiety  for  the  legs  of  doves  and  children  besides 
shame  on  account  of  the  nose  (122),  the  anesthetic  toe  (176), 
the  obsessional  movement  upon  extending  the  hand  (177), 
the  fatigue  (180),  St.  Vitus’  dance  movements  (185),  sleepi- 
ness (197),  anxiety  for  the  offending  bedside  table  (211), 
tearing  of  skin  on  the  thumb,  ravenous  hunger  for  carrots, 

* Freud,  Studien  fiber  Hysterie,  p.  157  f. 


274 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


violin  playing  (213f),  overlooking  the  waning  moon  (220) 
dream  of  a person  with  spinal  syphilis  (251). 

I ask  that  provisionally  the  expression  “ symbol’ * be  allowed 
to  apply  to  all  events  in  which  a symbol  represents  the  pictorial 
representation  of  an  idea  related  by  content  but  still  aiming 
at  something  else,  to  put  it  briefly : under  symbol,  I understand 
provisionally  the  veiled,  masked  expression  of  a thought  in  a 
phantastic  form  which  contains  an  analogy.  Concerning  the 
speech  usage,  I will  speak  later. 

(a)  psychology  of  the  symbol  in  customary  speech  usage 

The  Freudian  theory  of  symbols  has  stirred  up  much  dust. 
Many  persons  were  very  indignant  that  the  psychoanalyst 
should  make  the  unconscious  use  a varying  speech  of  double 
meaning  where  it  would  be  much  nicer  and  prettier  if  it  used 
a scientific,  logically  correct  manner  of  expression.  But  does 
the  symbolizing  activity  not  belong  to  the  most  universal  and 
most  important  functions  of  the  mental  life? 

I shall  introduce  some  evidence.  Speech  constantly  makes 
use  of  the  metaphor  as  is  well  known.  Its  words  have  devel- 
oped from  visual  ideas,  even  the  abstract  expressions  which 
are  now  construed  figuratively.  In  the  statement  just  made 
for  example,  the  words  “ideas”  (Vorstellungen),  “developed” 
(hervorgegangen),  “abstract”  (abstrakt),  “expressions” 
(Ausdriicke),  “figuratively”  (bildlich),  “construed”  (ge- 
fasst)  embrace  sensual  processes  and  objects  but  denote  facts 
of  the  inner,  mental  world  as  well.  The  terms  Pneuma 
(Greek),  Rauch  (Hebrew),  spiritus,  signify  really  breath 
(Hauch),  then,  also  soul  (mind),  the  actual  prepositions  all 
go  back  originally  to  relations  of  space.*  According  to  Max 
Muller,  in  a certain  stage  of  development  of  speech,  all  thoughts 
which  went  beyond  the  narrow  horizon  of  every-day  life  were 
expressed  in  metaphors.!  Indeed,  the  highest  terms  of  phi- 

* Hoffding,  Psych,  p.  3.  According  to  Wundt,  Logik,  2d  ed.  I,  150  ff., 
this  applies  only  to  the  majority  of  prepositions  (Messmer). 

t P.  209. 


SYMBOLISM  IN  RELIGION 


275 


losophy,  as  “substance,”  “cause”  and  the  like,  are  in  a certain 
sense,  symbols. 

Poetry  also  rests  in  part  on  symbolism.  One  needs  only 
to  mention  some  titles  like  “The  Wild  Duck,”  “The  Sunken 
Bell,”  to  illustrate  this.  Especially  in  folk  legends  is  there  a 
symbolism  of  which  Riklin  has  given  us  valuable  proof.* 

Painting  symbolizes  industriously.  One  thinks  of  Segan- 
tini’s  “Two  Mothers,”  Steinhausen ’s  “Representation  of 
Sorrow,  ’ ’ that  picture  in  which  beside  the  discouraged  peasant 
sitting  before  his  broken  plow,  there  is.  a withered  little  tree, 
while  over  his  believing  wife,  a blooming  tree  is  seen. 

The  symbol  is  particularly  frequent  in  religion.  Schleier- 
macher  even  considers  religion  the  product  of  symbolizing  ac- 
tivity.! F.  A.  Lange  attributes  high  value  to  religion  so  far 
as  its  truths  are  considered  only  as  symbols.!  Recent  religious 
philosophers  esteemed  the  symbol  formation  scarcely  less  im- 
portant even  though  they  also  thought  at  times  that  they  could 
strip  off  the  figurative  character  without  endangering  the  re- 
ligious nucleus.  Rauwenhoff  says:  “Nothing  is  clearer  than 
that  the  circle  of  ideas  which  the  religious  man  has  formed 
regarding  that  transcendental  force  which  he  has  made  an  ob- 
ject of  veneration,  has  constantly  been  the  production  of  his 
poetic  phantasy.  ” ||  Lipsius  asserts : Every  religious  emotion 
is  accompanied  by  an  act  of  formative  phantasy ; the  intuitive 
picture  created  thereby  is  “unconscious  symbol”  of  a trans- 
cendental one.fl  Siebeck  distinguishes  a “more  unconscious” 
and  a conscious  mode  of  symbolization.  § Sabatier  names  as 

* F.  Riklin,  Wunscherfiillung  u.  Symbolik  im  Marchen,  Leipzig  and 
Vienna,  1908. 

f G.  Runze,  Katechismus  der  Religionsphilosophie  273,  278.  In 
dogmatic  theology,  Schleiermacher  denied  “sensual  selfconsciousness.” 
Der  christl.  Glaube,  Berlin,  1884,  I,  p.  30. 

t F.  A.  Lange,  Geseh.  d.  Materialismus,  Iserlohn',  1877,  II,  p.  494  ff. 

||  W.  E.  Rauwenhoff,  Religionsphilosophie,  Braunschweig,  1894,  p. 
428.  Likewise  pp.  445,  449. 

H R.  A.  Lipsius,  Lehrbuch  d.  ev.-prot.  Dogmatik,  Braunschweig,  1893, 
p.  53. 

§ H.  Sieheck,  Lehrbuch  der  Religionsphilosophie,  Freiburg,  1893,  p. 
282. 


276 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


one  of  the  characteristics  of  religious  knowledge  that  it  is 
symbolical.*  Eucken  finds  that  religion  only  gains  an  effec- 
tive result  on  human  life  when  its  truths  gain  illuminating 
colors  by  phantasy  and  become  impressive  symbolic  figures ; t 
the  highest  religion  also  requires  the  symbol  % even  though 
one  must  hold  the  symbolical  character  of  all  human  modes  of 
expression  for  the  present,  in  order  to  combat  anthropomor- 
phism. ||  Finally,  Hoffding  teaches : “Religious  symbolism  is 
distinguished  (considered  epistomologically)  from  the  meta- 
physical only  by  the  fact  that  its  pictures  are  more  concrete, 
of  richer  colors  and  fuller  of  expression”;  IT  “if  the  religious 
ideas  have  any  kind  of  significance,  it  can  only  be  that  they 
serve  for  the  symbolical  expression  of  the  mood,  the  aspiration 
and  the  wishes  of  men  during  the  life  struggle.”  § 

The  images  of  God  are  symbols,  the  Apis  bull  of  the  Egyp- 
tians as  well  as  Ishtar,  the  goddess  of  love  of  the  Babylonians 
who  was  given  the  attributes  of  the  panther  and  the  morning- 
star.  Most  of  the  ritualistic  acts  are  of  symbolical  nature, 
the  taurobolium  of  Attis — where  to-day,  St.  Peter’s  of  Rome 
glistens,  the  pious  individual  allowed  himself  to  be  covered  with 
blood  from  the  sacrificial  animal  and  greedily  lapped  it  up 
with  his  mouth — not  less  than  the  noble  celebration  of  the 
Christian  Lord’s  Supper.  The  central  idea  of  Christianity  is 
expressed  in  the  symbol  of  the  cross  as  that  of  Buddhism  is 
in  the  lotus  flower  which  lies  motionless  on  the  pond  allowing 
the  rain  to  trickle  off  it,  and  at  night  withdrawing  under  the 
surface  of  the  water. 

Less  known  are  the  individual  symbolical  acts  with  which  the 
Old  Testament  for  example  is  filled.  Jeremiah,  for  instance, 
smashed  a pitcher  on  the  place  where  the  children  were  sacri- 

* A.  Sabatier,  Religionsphilosophie  auf  gesch.  Grundlage.  German 
by  Baur,  Freiburg  1898,  p.  307. 

f R.  Eucken,  Der  Wahrheitsgebalt  der  Religion,  Leipzig,  1901,  p.  340. 

% P.  376. 

||  P.  425. 

fH.  HMding,  ReligionspMl.,  Leipzig,  1901,  p.  70. 

§P.  83. 


SYMBOLISM  IN  FOLKLORE 


277 


ficed,  in  order  to  express  the  approaching  destruction*;  he 
placed  cords  and  yokes  on  his  neck  to  signify  the  approaching 
slavery.! 

Folk  superstitions  are  filled  with  symbolisms  which  are 
often  no  longer  understood.  In  order  to  render  teething  easier 
for  children,  they  laid  on  the  gums,  the  prepared  claws  of  a 
field  mouse  (arvicola  amphibius  L.).  “As  the  mouse  which 
digs  in  the  earth  breaks  through  the  earth  crust  and  works 
upward  to  the  surface,  so  shall  the  sprouting  tooth  break 
through  the  gum.”  $ The  ordinary  forms  of  daily  life  also 
have  in  great  part  figurative  value,  the  uncovering  of  the  head, 
the  bow,  the  shake  of  the  head,  etc.  There  are  also  symbols 
artificially  formed.  Riklin  recalls  the  fact  that  on  time-tables, 
a post-horn  refers  to  the  postal  communication  present.||  He 
also  calls  attention  that  to  the  concept  of  symbol,  the  charac- 
teristic of  secret  or  mysterious  is  usually  joined.^  Thus,  for 
example,  only  the  initiated  could  understand  the  runic  writing. 

How  and  why  were  symbols  formed?  Why  is  not  the  clear, 
definite  scientific  term  preferred?  One  reason  lies  in  the 
easily  grasped  distinctness  of  the  picture,  while  on  the  other 
hand,  the  concept  requires  far  greater  effort  of  thought.  In 
the  symbol,  one  speaks  of  facts  which  are  expressed  on  a basis 
of  analogies  by  a pictorial  idea  easily  comprehended  at  a glance. 
Even  in  science,  we  think  in  symbols  as  a rule.  When  we  have 
perceived  that  “sweet”  and  “white”  are  sensations  which  are 
present  only  in  a subject  equipped  with  a sense  apparatus  but 
never  in  the  outer  world  itself,  for  example,  in  a piece  of  sugar, 
still  we  think  in  our  deliberations  of  the  sugar  as  white  and 
sweet,  qualities  to  which  the  sugar  never  attains.  Wundt 

* Jeremiah,  xix. 

t Jeremiah,  xxvii.  Numerous  examples  in  C.  Kautzsch,  Biblisehe 
Theologie  des  Alten  und  Neuen  Testamentes.  Ttibingen  18(11,  pp.208  IT, 
212,  319. 

t 0.  Stoll,  Zur  Erkenntnis  des  Zauberglaubens,  der  Folksmagie  und 
Folksmedizin  in  der  Schweiz,  Ziirich,  1909,  p.  74. 

||  F.  Riklin,  WunscherfUllung  u.  Symbollk  im  M&rchen,  Leipzig  and 
Vienna,  1908,  p.  30. 

TP.  31. 


278 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


says  quite  correctly:  “After  the  whole  sensory  content  of 
ideas,  as  result  of  the  development  of  the  perception  of  knowl- 
edge, is  withdrawn  into  the  subject,  the  ideas,  from  then  on, 
can  apply  only  as  subjective  symbols  of  objective  significance, 
by  the  elaboration  of  which  symbols,  a knowledge  of  the  outer 
world  is  to  be  gained  only  in  conceptual  way. ’ ’ * “Not  images, 
but  symbols  of  reality,  constitute  science.”  t For  the  strictly 
scientific  mode  of  thought,  the  symbol  is  not  sufficient;  this 
thought  must  go  on  to  abstract  formulations.  But  of  these, 
too,  Durr  rightly  says:  “Abstractions  comprehend  concrete 
objects  by  means  of  symbolizing  conceptions.”! 

In  the  symbol,  there  usually  exists,  even  when  it  is  un- 
adorned, an  esthetic  stimulus,  which  precise  terms  lack.  In 
this  point,  it  is  surpassed  by  the  artistically  interested  allegory. 

Further,  the  symbol  possesses  a richness  which  the  concept 
lacks.  The  picture  is  not  exhausted  by  one  interpretation  or 
indeed  by  several.  One  is  never  quite  certain  when  a symbol 
is  exhausted  in  all  its  possibilities  (for  example,  the  cross). 
In  this  sense,  the  symbol  exceeds  the  concept  in  extent. 

The  symbol  includes  not  only  reality  as  it  is.  It  embraces 
besides  all  possible  characteristic  elements  borrowed  from  real- 
ity, also  such  as  correspond  to  our  wishes.  On  a basis  of 
analogies  existing  in  reality,  the  symbol  makes  a comparison 
in  which  the  traits  which  are  undecided  in  reality,  are  decided 
according  to  the  wish.  Thus,  the  symbol  is  real  and  unreal 
at  the  same  time  and  so  suffices  in  certain  relations  for  the 
reality-principle  and  the  pleasure-principle  of  our  mind,  of 
which  we  shall  have  to  speak.  It  expresses  hope  and  creates 
a hopeful  presentiment.  Just  here,  lies  an  especial  attraction 
which  Mallarme  describes  in  these  words:  “To  name  an  ob- 
ject, is  to  suppress  three  fourths  of  the  pleasure  of  the  poem 
which  consists  of  the  pleasure  of  divining  little  by  little.”  || 

Many  symbols  would  declare  and  conceal  simultaneously, 

* Wundt,  System  d.  Phil.  p.  146. 

f E.  Durr,  Erkenntnistheorie,  Leipzig,  1910,  p.  147.  Compare  p.  278. 

t Same,  p.  51. 

||  Cited  by  Hamann,  Der  Impressionismus  in  Kunst  u.  Leben,  p.  108. 


SYMBOLISM  IN  ANTIQUITY 


279 


thus,  the  secret  rites,  the  names  of  certain  secret  societies,  the 
pentagram,  etc. 

It  is  an  error  to  think  that  the  symbolical  always  expresses 
an  abstract  idea.  When  a boy  expresses  something  improper 
with  his  fingers,  his  comrade  understands  that  an  entirely  con- 
crete wish  is  thereby  communicated. 

Reality  can  also  become  a symbol.  Hamann  remarks : “It 
(the  stimulating  excitation)  is  truest  and  finest  where  the 
symbols  do  not  belong  to  a richer,  strange  and  beautiful  world 
but  where  apparently  every-day  words  and  experiences  are 
full  of  mysterious  references  and  hidden  meanings.  ’ ’ * 

Besides  the  concepts  of  symbol  given  above,  there  is  yet  an- 
other still  more  extended  meaning.  In  antiquity,  ov/xfioX ov 
signified  in  addition  to  sensual  representation  of  an  idea,  as 
much  as  characteristic,  mark  or  token,  such  for  example  as 
those  carried  by  the  judges  or  participants  in  the  mysteries, 
then  further,  an  agreed-upon  sign,  for  instance,  the  soldier’s 
watchword.  In  church  history,  symbols  mean  also  the  formulas 
or  books  by  which  a religious  sect  stated  its  beliefs  in  order 
to  distinguish  themselves  from  other  groups,  sects  or  churches. 
The  characteristics  of  figurative  distinctness,  esthetic  reality, 
secret  wisdom  are  thereby  lost. 

So  far  as  the  symbols  in  ordinary  speech  usage  are  con- 
cerned, their  origin  in  brevity,  distinctness,  easy  comprehen- 
sion, esthetic  acceptableness,  fulness  of  content,  suggestive 
promise,  discrete  disguise  is  well  founded  and  justified.  The 
symbol  appears  therefore,  not  only  as  Silberer  says,  wherever 
the  thought  cannot  manifest  itself  in  consciousness  in  its 
“real”  form  from  any  reason  whatever.!  It  is  indeed  correct 
that  even  a scientific  thought  may  "be  anticipated  symbolically 
— one  thinks  of  Kekule’s  benzol  ring  (240) — but  a symbol  may 
occasionally  be  preferred  in  the  presence  of  the  full  intellectual 
mastery  of  the  material. 

* Hamann,  p.  108. 

t H.  Silberer,  uber  Symbolbildung,  Jabrb.  Ill,  p.  664. 


280 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


(b)  symbol  formation  as  manifestation 
(1)  Psychological  Remarks 

The  neurotic  and  dream  symbols  agree  in  most  character- 
istics with  those  of  ordinary  mental  life.  They  also  express 
one  idea  by  another,  whereby  this  symbolic  idea  often  ex- 
presses only  a characteristic,  a related  object  or  an  analogous 
process.  It  makes  use  of  allusion.  In  the  plain  simplicity 
(which  represents  a condensation),  the  expressiveness,  the 
excitation  to  foreboding  expectations,  the  conscious  and  un- 
conscious symbols  are  a unit. 

The  fundamental  difference  between  the  two  kinds  of  sym- 
bols lies  in  the  fact  that  the  conscious  symbol  serves  the  pur- 
pose of  communication  to  other  persons,  thus,  is  a social  func- 
tion, while  the  automatic  symbol  is  of  autistic  nature  (see  be- 
low). Paul  says  in  one  place:  “He  that  speaketh  in  an  un- 
known tongue  edifieth  himself”  (not  for  other  men)  I Cor. 
xiv,  4.  This  holds  true  of  all  manifestations.*  The  manifes- 
tation must  be  incomprehensible  for  its  producer.  It  is  as  we 
saw,  even  an  attempt  to  overcome  the  resistance  by  distortion. 
The  pent-up  instinct,  inhibited  from  open  activity,  utilizes 
metaphorical  automatism  to  gratify  itself  at  least  to  as  high  a 
degree  as  possible. 

A distinct  difference  may  not  be  disputed  here.  But  should 
the  name  “symbol”  be  withheld  from  the  manifestation  on 
this  account  ? No.  Not  only  do  the  psychological  and  logical 
characteristics  of  both  symbolisms  agree,  aside  from  the  social 
teleology,  but  also  the  history  of  language,  which  considers 
the  symbol  simply  as  sign,  completely  justifies  the  psychoanaly- 
tic speech  usage.  For  the  rest,  no  one  is  forbidden  to  give  a 
new  sense  to  a scientific  term  where  no  confusion  threatens. 
All  terms  undergo  a change  in  meaning. 

How  closely  related  both  kinds  of  symbolisms  are,  is  seen 

* There  are  also  manifestations  with  social  aims,  for  example,  faint- 
ing as  a demand  for  tenderness.  But  there  too,  the  content  of  the 
symptom  is  still  asocial  (flight  from  reality). 


SYMBOLISM  IN  “MACBETH” 


281 


particularly  in  those  formations  which  can  appear  just  as  well 
automatically  as  on  a basis  of  conscious  deliberation.  For 
example, 'we  heard  on  page  68  of  a patient  who  had  to  wash 
himself  continually  in  obsessional  manner.  As  cause  for  this 
obsession,  we  found  the  unconscious  wish  to  free  himself  from 
the  reproach  of  self-pollution.  I found  the  same  motive  in 
some  other  youths.  A woman  patient  in  the  middle  thirties, 
who  had  to  perform  her  astoundingly  complicated  washing  cere- 
mony under  severest  mental  anguish,  three  to  six  hours  every 
day  and  could  never  wear  the  same  linen  two  days,  so  fastened 
both  arms  every  night  with  safety-pins  that  they  could  not 
touch  her  body  and  in  addition,  the  nightdress  had  to  be  pinned 
tightly  together  below.  The  formative  determination  of  this 
obsessional  neurosis  is  plain  enough. 

The  discovery  of  this  connection  was  made  by  Freud  by 
means  of  analysis.  Then,  however,  he  found  that  a great 
poet  had  already  discovered  the  state  of  affairs  by  intuition  * — 
as  in  general,  analysis  has  found  scarcely  one  important  fact 
which  profound  students  of  humanity  had  not  already  per- 
ceived more  or  less  clearly.  Shakespeare  describes  in  his 
“Macbeth”  (V-l)  the  Lady  walking  in  her  sleep  after  the 
murder  of  the  king: 

Doctor:  What  is  it  she  does  now?  Look  how  she  rubs  her  hands. 
Waiting-xcoman : It  is  an  accustomed  action  with  her,  to  seem  thus 
washing  her  hands;  I have  known  her  continue  in  this  a quarter  of 
an  hour. 

Lady  Macbeth:  Yet  here’s  a spot  . . . Out,  damned  spot!  Out,  I 
say!  . . . Yet  who  would  have  thought  the  old  man  to  have  had  so 
much  blood  in  him?  . . . What,  will  these  hands  ne’er  be  clean? 
Doctor:  Foul  whisperings  are  abroad:  unnatural  deeds 
Do  breed  unnatural  troubles:  infected  minds 
To  their  deaf  pillows  will  discharge  their  secrets: 

More  needs  she  the  divine  than  the  physician.”  f 

Tbe  connection,  as  Shakespeare  represents  it  here,  can  be 
shown  in  individuals  who  are  readily  analyzable,  often  with 

* Freud,  Obsessions  et  phobies.  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  90. 
t Theory  of  abreaction ! 


282 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


the  greatest  ease  and  clearness.  Error  seems  to  me  absolutely- 
excluded.  It  should  be  emphasized  that  the  patient  himself 
does  not  once  suspect  the  cause  of  his  obsession. 

Is  this  symbolism  so  uncommon?  Have  we  not  already 
found  it  a hundred  times?  We  find  washing  among  many 
peoples  as  a symbolical  act  which  is  meant  to  express  the  wish 
for  purification  of  the  soul  from  guilt.  The  Old  Testament 
affords  a multitude  of  examples : for  instance,  Isaiah  i,  15,  16 : 
“Your  hands  are  full  of  blood.  Wash  you,  make  you  clean.” 
Jeremiah  ii,  22:  “For  though  thou  wash  thee  with  nitre, 
and  take  thee  much  soap,  yet  thine  iniquity  is  marked  before 
me,  saith  the  Lord  God.”*  At  the  time  of  Jesus,  the 
proselytes  probably  had  to  undergo  an  immersion  in  order  to 
be  received  into  membership  in  the  Jewish  religion.!  Primi- 
tive Christianity  understood,  with  John  the  Baptist,  baptism 
to  be  a purification  ceremony.  (I  Cor.  vi,  11 ; Eph.  v,  26,  etc.) 

The  difference  between  unconscious  washing  symbolism  con- 
ditioned by  complexes  and  conscious  washing  symbolism  is 
slight.  The  former  is  not  understood  by  the  person  using  the 
ceremonial,  the  latter  is  well  understood.  The  difference  be- 
comes even  smaller  yet : The  religious  baptismal  ceremony  be- 
came an  incomprehensible,  magic-working  mystery  which  was 
executed  more  or  less  obsessionally  with  secret  fear.$ 

(2)  The  Meaning  of  the  Symbols 

A.  POSSIBILITY  OP  INTERPRETING  SYMBOLS 

Many  persons  will  not  dispute  the  fact  of  symbols  condi- 
tioned by  complexes  but  deny  the  possibility  of  a reliable  in- 
terpretation and,  like  Isserlin,  accuse  the  analysts,  who  never- 
theless venture  an  explanation,  of  “grotesque  statements.”  || 

* E.  Kautzsch,  Die  H.  Schrift  dea  Alten  Testaments,  Tubingen,  1909, 
Vol.  I.  Further  examples  in  Exodus  xxxvi,  25,  Psalm  li.,  4 and  9. 

t H.  Guthe,  Kurzes  Bibelworterbueh,  Tubingen  and  Leipzig,  1903,  p. 
653. 

| Freud,  Zwangshandlungen  u.  Religionsiibung.  Kl.  Schriften  II, 
pp.  122-131. 

||  M.  Isserlin,  uber  Jungs  “Psychologie  der  Dementia  prsecox”  und 


INTERPRETATION  OF  SYMBOLS 


283 


It  is  to  be  admitted  that  in  Freud’s  writings,  the  proofs 
for  particular  interpretations  are  not  given  in  satisfactory 
fulness — volumes  would  have  been  necessary  to  do  this. 
But  Freud  did  not  write  for  scholars  who  would  take  coun- 
sel and  advice  only  from  books,  he  turned  to  investiga- 
tors who  were  willing  and  capable  of  opening  the  book  of 
reality. 

The  interpretation  of  many  symbols  does  not  really  demand 
much  acuity  of  vision.  It  has  been  a subject  of  jest  that  the 
Zeppelin  airship  in  dreams  was  considered  a masculine  symbol. 
The  following  little  fragment  of  dream  analysis  will  give  the 
uninitiated  person  ground  for  deciding  whether  that  exegesis 
was  so  very  artificial. 

The  patient  with  obsessional  neurosis,  aged  sixteen,  to  whom 
I referred  on  page  72,  dreamed : “I  saw  a Zeppelin  airship 
and  went  after  it.  It  landed  in  H.  on  a meadow.  Then  there 
was  something  with  maps  in  the  ear  or  somewhere  else.  Then 
I went  off  and  was  finally  in  C.  near  the  station  there.  I asked 
for  directions  how  to  get  home  and  was  led  to  a house.  There 
were  various  dried  fish  and  thick  green  seaweed,  out  of  which, 
a white  worm  came.  Then,  I finally  came  home.  Everything 
was  full  of  laundry  in  great  disorder.  Then  the  Zeppelin  flew 
directly  over  our  house  and  made  a kind  of  salt  hail.  Then 
someone  said  to  me,  that  is  a trial  of  a method  by  which  it 
could  destroy  all  crops  in  case  of  war.” 

[What  comes  to  mind  in  connection  with  the  dream?]  “It 
reminds  me  of  the  white  body  of  the  flounder  which  was  so 
significant  for  me. 

[The  airship.]  My  oldest  anxiety-dream  dealt  with  a 
dragon  which  flew  over  my  bed.  His  tail  reminded  me  of  the 
worm-shaped  organ  of  the  flounder. 

[The  meadow.]  In  its  neighborhood,  was  the  river  in  which 
in  the  previous  dream,  I fished  for  cladophora  which  in  reality 
were  not  there  at  the  time.  One  showed  a long  thin  bent  stalk 
at  the  end  of  which,  many  threads  separated  clockwise,  the 

die  Anwendung  Freudscher  Maximen  in  der  Psychopathologie.  Zbl. 
f.  Nervenheilkunde  u Psychiatrie  1907,  329-343  (p.  336). 


£84 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


other  looked  like  frog-spawn.  The  meadow  also  resembled 
that  on  which  I actually  saw  the  Zeppelin  balloon. 

[Maps.]  The  region  of  Paris.  The  key  to  the  signs  was 
disagreeable  to  me. 

[The  engineer.]  He  showed  me  the  maps. 

[C.]  In  a little  street  by  the  station,  I inquired  the  way 
There  I saw  rays  in  a show  window. 

[The  house  with  the  fish.]  The  table  is  that  of  my  room. 
The  seaweed  was  an  ulva,  a structure  in  reality  about  a foot 
long.  The  white  worm  did  not  really  exist;  it  reminded  me, 
I think,  even  in  the  dream  of  flounder  and  dragon’s  tail. 

[Dirty  linen.]  As  when  I go  in  my  room  too  early  before  it 
has  been  put  in  order.  I felt  uncomfortable. 

[Did  something  happen  to  the  linen  that  night?]  At  the 
end  of  the  dream,  I had  a pollution. 

[The  salt  hail.]  I read  that  such  a thing  happened  in  1870 
when  the  wind  drove  seawater  upon  the  land.  Otherwise 
nothing.  The  salt  looked  in  the  air  like  flakes,  only  on  the 
earth  like  salt. 

[Crops  (grain).]  I saw  something  black  in  the  grain  that 
I took  for  a mushroom.  It  was  only  pitch  however.  I was 
angry  at  being  so  stupid.  I eat  much  rye-bread.” 

We  will  not  interpret  everything  in  this  dream.  Our  inter- 
est concerns  first  the  airship.  It  resembles  the  organ  which 
the  dreamer  considered  a member,  further  the  dragon  tail 
which  aroused  anxiety.  “Map”  is  the  vulgar  t£rm  used  by 
young  people  for  pollution  stains.  Further,  the  phantastic 
cladophora  taken  beside  the  meadow  have  sexual  significance  as 
the  sketch  made  by  the  dreamer  immediately  betrays.  Paris 
comes  into  consideration  as  city  of  immorality.  The  engineer 
is  the  analyst  who  had  given  his  anxious  youth  quieting  as- 
surance concerning  the  harmlessness  of  the  pollution.*  The 
street  in  C.,  the  disordered  linen,  the  ulva  touch  the  same 

* In  very  many  cases  of  too  frequent  pollutions,  the  mere  calming 
assurance  without  analysis  suffices.  Concerning  severe  cases,  compare 
ehapter  XXVII,  section  6. 


INTERPRETATION  OF  SYMBOLS 


285 


sexual  theme.  The  flake-like  salt  hail  over  the  house  refers  to 
the  cause  of  the  malady,  the  incest  with  the  sister.  To  my 
question:  “Does  not  salt  serve  for  sterilization  of  land?” 
he  answered:  “I  do  not  think  that  this  is  the  case  here.” 
Naturally  he  is  right.  Salt  is  here,  as  in  folklore,  symbol  of 
creation  and  fruitfulness,  to  which  Schleiden  referred  in  1875, 
in  his  book,  “Das  Salz.  Seine  Gesehicht,  seine  Symbolik,  und 
seine  Bedeutung  in  Menschenleben. ” (Salt.  Its  history,  its 
symbolism  and  significance  in  human  life.)*  Ernest  Jones 
gives  a mass  of  ethnographical  proof  for  the  sperma  symbolism 
of  salt  in  an  exhaustive  article. 

How  one  can  deny  the  sexual  significance  of  the  airship  in 
this  pollution-dream  is  inconceivable  to  me. 

' In  a later  pollution-dream,  the  youth  saw  Count  Zeppelin 
standing  there,  in  a still  later  one,  he  caught  sight  of  him  only 
on  a medallion.  Timid  minds  who  take  offence  at  the  dis- 
cussion of  such  objects  should  notice  that  the  analysis  elimi- 
nated not  only  the  extremely  complicated  obsessional  neurosis 
but  also  improved  in  most  gratifying  manner  the  moral  dignity 
of  the  youth  who  had  caused  his  parents  great  concern. 

Space  is  lacking  to  give  many  analyses  of  symbols.  The 
reader  will  be  able  to  make  such  for  himself  very  easily  if  he 
studies  this  book. 

A symbol  can  express  different  thoughts  at  the  same  time. 
The  cross  is  the  emblem  of  the  Christian  religion  but  also  ex- 
pression of  the  idea  that  by  the  greatest  sacrifice,  the  highest 
victory  must  be  purchased,  or  that  even  death  can  afford  no 
cheek  to  heroic  love,  or  that  injustice  may  befall  even  the  holi- 
est. So  also  can  the  symbol  conditioned  on  complexes  lay  claim 
to  many  interpretations  in  order  to  be  fully  understood.  In 
the  dream  of  the  patient  with  spinal  syphilis  (251f),  most  of 
the  ideas,  for  instance,  water,  gondola,  being  lifted,  pastor, 
etc.  had  a religious  and  an  erotic  meaning.  Freud’s  dictum : 
Behind  one  dream  interpretation  may  always  lurk  another, 

* Compare  E.  Jones,  Die  Bedeutung  des  Salzes  in  Sitte  und  Brauch 
der  Volker.  Imago  I,  p.  367. 


286 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


so  that  one  is  really  never  sure  of  having  completely  inter- 
preted a dream,*  is  true  also  of  the  symbol. 

The  question  whether  every  symbol  can  be  interpreted,  I 
think  should  be  answered  in  the  negative.  Naturally,  one 
can  find  some  kind  of  sense  in  all.  But  the  deeper  an  interpre- 
tation is,  just  so  much  the  more  important  it  is.  Since  not 
every  dream  can  be  interpreted,!  and  is  often  condensed  into 
a symbol  of  the  dream  content,  so  one  need  not  feel  bound 
to  decipher  every  symbol.  Nevertheless  the  connection  with 
other  dreams  and  manifestations  yields  the  correct  meaning. 

B.  TYPICAL.  SYMBOLS 

One  can  very  well  understand  that  the  assertion  that  cer- 
tain dream  ideas  signify,  always  or  almost  always,  such  and 
such  real  objects,  should  have  occasioned  violent  indignation. 
By  this  theory,  the  danger  is  incurred  of  wanting  to  interpret 
the  dream  mechanically  by  the  aid  of  a lexicon.  This  stupid 
method  repels  one.  Stekel,  although  he  has  deciphered  many 
symbols  with  great  ingenuity,  has  published  others  as  typical 
with  too  little  motivation  and  too  hasty  generalization ' and 
later  recalled  them.  But  he  himself  emphasizes  the  artistic 
factor  in  the  dream  interpretation. % 

On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  of  typical  symbols,  if  they  exist, 
facilitates  the  work  of  patient  and  analyst  to  a considerable 
extent.  Let  us  bow,  therefore,  to  the  force  of  reality. 

That  there  are  typical  symbols,  I will  show  first  in  a neat 
example : the  picture  of  the  serpent.  The  phallic  significance 
of  the  serpent  runs  through  wide  stretches  of  religious  history : 
Dieterich  relates  that  in  Greece  on  certain  feasts,  a phallus  or 
a serpent  was  placed  in  a chest. ||  .The  serpent  cult  of  the 
negroes  of  Haiti  and  Louisiana  bears  a phallic  character^ 

* Freud,  Traumdeutung,  pp.  109,  223. 

f Same,  p.  350. 

% Stekel,  Die  Sprache  des  Traumes,  p.  533. 

|]  Dieterich,  Eine  Mithrasliturgie,  1910. 

U P.  D.  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  Lehrbuch  d.  Religionsgesch. 


TYPICAL  SYMBOLS 


287 


Among  the  Arrhetophorians,  pastry  in  the  form  of  phalli  and 
serpents  was  thrown  into  the  chasm  during  the  Thesmophoria 
in  order  to  obtain  fruitfulness  in  children  and  harvests.*  The 
serpent,  besides  other  objects  known  to  the  analyst  as  sexual 
symbols,  is  the  symbol  of  Hecate  Aphrodisias.f 

The  mother  of  Augustus  dreamed  that  she  was  impregnated 
by  Apollo  changed  into  the  form  of  a serpent  and  has  borne 
since  then  the  figure  of  a serpent  on  her  thigh. 

The  legend  also  makes  use  of  the  serpent  symbolism.  In 
Bechstein’s  “Oda  und  die  Sehlange,”  the  serpent  taken  into 
bed  by  the  girl  changes  into  a prince.! 

Art  often  replaces  the  phallus  by  a serpent.  Moricke  speaks 
plainly  enough  in  his  “Ersten  Liebeslied  eines  Madchens” 
(First  love  song  of  a maiden) : 

“What  is  in  the  net?  Just  look 
But  I am  afraid; 

Do  I grasp  a sweet  eel  ? 

Do  I grasp  a serpent? 

It  slips  through  my  hands. 

0,  woe!  0,  joy! 

With  twisting  and  turning 
It  slides  to  my  breast. 

It  bites,  0,  wonder! 

Me  right  through  the  skin, 

Shoots  down  to  the  heart. 

0 love,  I shudder! 

1 must  be  poisoned! 

Here  it  sneaks  around 
Blissfully  buries  itself 
And  puts  me  to  death.”  || 

Freiburg  and  Leipzig,  2d  ed.  1897,  I,  p.  25.  Maeder  gives  further 
ethnographic  evidence  in  “Die  Symbolik  in  den  Legenden,  Marchen, 
Gebriiuchen  und  Traumen.  Psychiatrisch-neurol.  Wochensehrift,  Year 
X,  Nos.  6 and  7.  Also  Riklin,  Wunscherfiillung  u.  Symbolik  im 
Marchen,  pp.  40-44. 

* Jung,  Wandlungen  u.  Symbole  der  Libido.  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  372. 

t Same,  p.  397. 

t Riklin,  Wunscherfiillung,  p.  41. 

||  E.  Moricke,  Samtl.  W.  W.,  Stuttgart  and  Leipzig,  p.  8.  Jung, 
Jahrbueh  IV,  p.  126. 


288 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


If  we  wished  to  give  the  whole  poem,  we  could  show  with 
ease  from  a mass  of  analogies  what  “bite,”  “heart,”  “poison,” 
“bury,”  “put  to  death”  (umbringen),  mean. 

Lessing  points  out  in  Laocoon  (Section  II)  that  the  mothers 
of  Aristomenes,  Ariotodoma,  Alexander  the  Great,  Scipio, 
Augustus,  and  Valerius  dreamed  during  their  pregnancies 
that  they  had  to  do  with  a serpent. 

Goethe  uses  the  serpent  symbol  in  the  same  sense.  In  the 
12th  Roman  elegy,  he  describes  the  person  being  initiated  into 
the  Elysian  mysteries. 

“Strangely  wandered  the  novice  through  circles 
Of  rare  figures;  in  dream,  he  seemed  to  ramble;  for  here 
Serpents  squirmed  about  on  the  ground,  locked  caskets 
Richly  crowned  with  spikes,  girls  here  bore  by, 

Only  after  many  tests  and  trials,  was  to  him  revealed. 

What  the  sacred  circle  strangely  hid  in  pictures. 

And  what  was  the  secret,  except  that  Demeter  the  Great, 

Once  obligingly  submitted  to  a hero, 

As  she  once  to  Jaoon,  the  valiant  King  of  Crete, 

Granted  the  gracious  secrets  of  her  immortal  body.”  * 

It  is  not  necessary  to  tell  more  clearly  what  serpent  and 
casket  signify. 

We  too  have  met  the  serpent  as  phallus-representative 
several  times : In  the  obsessional  neurotic  patient,  who,  after 
a bath  with  the  father,  could  no  longer  hold  his  hands  in 
water  for  fear  of  a serpent  (72),  and  in  the  patient  with 
anxiety  hysteria  who  saw  hallucinated  serpents  crawling  over 
her  feet  but  which  could  no  longer  bite  (66),  etc. 

I could  easily  present  a number  of  dreams  which  give  ser- 
pents the  same  representation.  Only  two  examples : 

“I  went  with  some  girls  to  a meadow  beside  the  flowing 
brooks.  In  these,  lay  serpents,  small  ones  about  fifteen  centi- 
meters long,  and  large  ones  which  were  about  six  paces  long. 
We  wanted  to  jump  away  but  always  fell  on  the  serpents. 
I could  not  jump  because  of  anxiety  and  called  after  the  others. 
They-  came  and  took  me  home  with  them.  There  we  made 

* Goethe,  Rom.  Elegien  XII.  Zbl.  II,  p.  291  f. 


TYPICAL  SYMBOLS 


289 


serpents  in  sardine-boxes  (sic).  We  cut  up  the  serpents  with 
knives,  afterwards,  put  oil  on  them,  no,  only  water,  and  ate 
the  serpents.” 

On  that  meadow,  the  dreamer,  a twelve  year  old  girl  whom 
we  met  on  page  185,  had  really  gone.  With  her  girl  friends, 
she  had  looked  at  a picture-book  in  which  there  were  serpents. 
Further  associations  did  not  come.  I therefore  said  outright : 
“Tell  quite  frankly  what  really  happened.”  The  little  one 
reported  amid  tears  that  one  of  her  friends  had  just  that  morn- 
ing explained,  she  was  so  tired.  Then  she  had  confessed  that 
she  had  practiced  sexual  intercourse  with  a boy,  which  agitated 
the  hearer.  The  latter,  when  five  years  old,  had  been  im- 
properly handled  by  a boy.  The  box  corresponded,  like  the 
chest  of  the  Greek  feast  and  the  casket  in  Goethe’s  elegy,  to 
the  female  organ.  Freud  calls  attention  that  7rv|is,  English 
box,  has  this  special  meaning.  The  cutting  up  of  the  serpent 
corresponds  to  the  sadistic  poem,  in  which,  of  the  children 
crawling  in  the  body,  one  is  dead,  one  blind  and  one  with  a hole 
in  its  head.  The  eating  of  the  serpent  is  that  process  which 
Freud  calls  displacement  from  below  upwards.* 

The  other  dream  comes  from  a fourteen  year  old  hysterical 
girl  whom  we  met  on  page  212,  and  abbreviated  runs  as  fol- 
lows: 

“I  went  away  from  my  parents  and  met  many  serpents 
who  said  to  me  that  I should  immediately  turn  around  or  a 
great  misfortune  would  befall  me.  I ran,  however,  filled  with 
anxiety,  farther  among  the  serpents.  Then  I came  to  a hole 
which  was  quite  black  with  serpents.  They  crawled  upon  me, 
ever  closer  and  closer  so  that  I could  scarcely  breathe.  I 
called:  ‘Help!  Help!’  Then  my  mother  and  a girl  comrade 

* Jung  interprets  the  cutting-up  of  the  serpent  as  symbolical  expres- 
sion of  rebirth.  The  regressive  libido  is  cut  up  and  sacrificed  to  the 
purpose  of  the  rebirth.  He  recalls  Dionysos  who,  in  the  form  of  a 
serpent  under  the  name  of  Zagreus,  was  cut  up  and  whose  heart,  Zeus 
with  the  aim  of  rebirth,  swallowed,  further  he  recalls  the  Orphic  sacred 
feast  dedicated  to  Dionysos  Zagreus  in  which  the  cut-up  serpent  was 
eaten.  A mass  of  other  historical  observations  also  compel  him  to  this 
interpretation  of  the  serpent- symbol. 


290 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


came  quickly  and  cut  the  serpents  apart  with  knives.  Then  I 
awoke  and  was  free  again.” 

The  similarity  to  the  preceding  dream  stands  out  plainly. 
Again  we  are  dealing  with  an  anxiety  dream  which  with  the 
strong  pent-up  sexual  desire  of  both  girls,  cannot  be  wondered 
at.  Again  the  serpent  is  cut  in  pieces. 

[The  serpents.]  “They  lay  in  a ditch  beside  the  road.  I 
really  saw  an  adder  once,  lying  so.  (The  symbolism  of  the 
ditch  is  not  difficult  to  decipher  in  this  and  the  preceding 
dream.)  At  a fair,  I saw  a woman  who  wore  a snake  about  her 
neck.  The  smaller  serpents  were  about  0.5  meter,  the  larger, 
some  5 meters  long.”  (As  in  previous  dream;  exaggerated 
representation  of  various  conditions.) 

[The  warning  of  the  serpents.]  “Serpents  cannot  speak. 
Otherwise,  nothing.” 

[The  hole.]  “In  the  garden  of  a pension  for  young  men, 
there  is  such  a hole.  Water  dropped  from  above  (stalactites, 
phallus-shaped).  The  serpents  gave  out  a white  foamy 
liquid.” 

[They  crawled  up.]  “On  the  legs,  about  the  neck  and  head. 
It  seemed  very  odd  to  me.  I thought,  now  it  is  ready,  now  I 
shall  be  bitten.” 

[Help!  Help!]  “My  father  once  struck  my  mother. 
Then  I called  help,  help !” 

[Mother  and  comrade  come  to  help.]  “They  wore  red 
aprons.  I too  have  one  at  home.  When  my  father  saw  it,  he 
scolded  because  it  was  too  expensive.  The  comrade,  I see 
often ; she  does  not  wish  to  know  me  longer  but  goes  into  school 
with  me,  nevertheless.”  [The  cutting  up  of  the  serpents.] 
“On  my  body.  Now  it  came  to  my  mind  how  father  struck 
mother  and  we  scratched  him.” 

The  anxiety  itself  betrays  to  everyone  who  has  analyzed  a 
few  dozen  anxiety-dreams,  the  suspected  sexual  situation.  The 
warning  of  the  serpents  shows  the  fear  of  sexuality.  In  the 
garden  grotto,  the  little  one  often  saw  young  men  even  years 
before.  Behind  the  encircling  serpents,  in  the  first  rank, 


SERPENT-SYMBOL 


291 


stands  the  father ; the  little  daughter  identifies  herself  with  her 
mother  while  the  whole  father  becomes  a serpent  which  is  cut 
in  pieces.  One  notices  here  besides  the  sexual  desire,  the 
sadistic  hate.  The  cause  of  the  dream  is  the  sight  of  the  parents 
united  in  wedlock  after  a separation  of  years,  whose  bed  stood 
beside  that  of  the  child.* 

I have  now  shown  in  sufficient  observations  that  the  serpent 
occurs  principally  as  a masculine  symbol.  I could  show  that 
the  fish  of  related  shape  appears  typically  in  similar  applica- 
tion. As  proof,  I mention  only  the  habit  of  a normal  boy  of 
taking  fish  in  the  aquarium  in  his  hands,  whereupon,  a high 
degree  of  sensual  pleasure  appeared.  Further,  the  Chinese 
dragon  which  makes  itself  now  small,  now  large,  could  be  in- 
troduced with  its  myths.  But  the  serpent  symbol  is  not  yet 
disposed  of. 

The  serpent  appears  also  as  feminine  symbol.  The  serpent 
in  paradise  is  often  pictured  as  a female  being.!  The  woman 
plays  a role  as  serpent  also  in  folk  sayings. 

Further,  the  serpent  is  the  being  into  which  the  soul  after 
leaving  the  body  changes.J  Jung  indeed  reads  from  the  pic- 
ture of  Priapus  who  was  castrated  by  a serpent  and  from  a 
man  pictured  by  Rubens  as  in  the  flood,  to  whom  the  same  thing 
happens,  as  well  as  many  other  monuments  that  the  serpent 
may  be  the  own  (repressed)  will  to  die.|| 

Conversely,  we  recognize  the  serpent  again  as  personification 
of  ^Esculapius,  as  genius  of  mineral  spa,  incarnate  earth-  and 
fire-god,  etc.  Jung  remarks:  “Whatever  else  the  symbolism 
of  the  serpent  may  relate  to,  its  interpretation  is  very  depend- 
ent on  age  and  circumstances  of  life.  To  youth,  repressed 

* Jung  interprets  this  dream  also  asexuallv:  The  serpents  are  death- 
symbols  (compare  Wandlungen,  Jahrb.  IV,  462),  the  flight  into  caves 
means  withdrawal  from  life.  The  meaning  would  then  be:  Wish  for 
the  overcoming  of  the  anxiety  over  rebirth.  The  anxiety  says:  You 
should  be  anxious  concerning  sexuality,  otherwise  you  will  fall  into  the 
bottomless  pit. 

! Jung,  Wandlungen,  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  212. 

t Riklin,  Wunscherfullung,  p.  43. 

||  Jung,  Wandlungen,  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  472, 


292 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


sexuality  is  symbolized  in  the  serpent,  for  the  advent  of  sexu- 
ality brings  an  end  to  childhood.  To  age,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  serpent  signifies  repressed  death  thoughts.”  * 

Finally,  Jung  finds  in  the  dragon  which  fights  the  mythologi- 
cal hero,  “the  repressed  libido  of  the  son  striving  for  the 
mother,  thus  as  you  might  say,  the  son  himself.”  t 

At  all  events,  the  simple  symbol  of  the  serpent  is  in  general 
of  many  meanings  and  it  is  awkward  and  stupid  to  identify  the 
serpent  every  time  with  the  phallus.!  I have  also  found  the 
serpent  atypically  as  allusion  to  the  pretendedly  poisonous 
tongue  of  the  wife. 

The  discussion  of  one  particular  typical  symbol  has  detained 
us  for  some  time.  I would  gladly  introduce,  a number  of  others 
but  we  would  lose  too  much  time.  Enough  that  there  are  typi- 
cal symbols  in  great  number.  It  is  also  certain  that  their 
typical  interpretation  possesses  only  high  probability,  never- 
theless, it  often  renders  possible  a positively  correct  explana- 
tion of  the  connection  of  the  majority  of  such  complex  struc- 
tures. He  who  does  not  like  to  publish  his  intimate  secrets, 
should  guard  against  relating  to  an  analyst  his  dreams  and 
phantasies.  How  often  have  I had  the  experience  of  having 
someone,  in  spite  of  warning,  persist  against  this  advice  and 
blushingly  have  to  ackliowledge  the  interpretation  of  the 
analyst  who  read  from  it  impotence  or  some  other  discrete 
intimacy ! 

Merely  as  examples  of  frequent  meanings  of  typical  symbols, 
not  as  infallible  translations,  a few  especially  frequent  ones 
may  be  mentioned. 

As  symbol  of  masculine  sexuality  appear : 

(a)  Objects  of  similar  shape,  as  pistols,  guns,  needles,  knives, 
daggers,  lances,  pencils,  paper-cutters,  umbrellas,  towers. 

(b)  Male  animals:  bull,||  elephant,  usually  with  upraised 
trunk,  tiger,  lion. 

* Jung,  Wandlungen,  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  462. 

t P.  395. 

$The  same  is  true  of  the  fish. 

||  According  to  Jung,  this  appears  also  as  feminine  symbol,  as  also 
the  fish  (Jahrb.  IV,  p.  242). 


TYPICAL  SYMBOLS 


293 


As  feminine  symbols  are  recognized : chests,  boxes,  pockets, 
books,  butterflies,  shoes,  holes,  churches. 

Masculine  or  feminine  may  be : bird,  dog,  cat,  mouse,  horse, 
tree,*  plum,  foot,  sun  (father  or  mother). 

Sexual  activity  is  expressed  by  striking,  biting,  riding,  eat- 
iilg,  fighting,  swimming,  flying. 

In  the  following  sections,  we  shall  see  whether  these  sexual 
interpretations  must  be  replaced  by  a deeper  asexual  explana- 
tion as  Adler  and  Jung  assume. 

How  does  the  knowledge  of  the  most  frequent  meanings  of 
symbols  help  us  in  the  manifold  meanings  of  symbols?  Were 
it  not  better  that  one  knew  nothing  of  these  meanings  and 
sought  for  himself  ? Certainly  it  is  desirable  that  one  should 
find  as  much  for  himself  as  possible.  But  I admit  that  here 
and  there  I could  not  solve  a dream  but  when  I put  in  an  inter- 
pretation of  Freud’s,  Jung’s  or  Stekel’s,  it  yielded  good  sense 
which  also  fitted  excellently  in  the  mental  condition  as  it  was 
disclosed  by  other  phenomena.  He  who  denies  typical  symbols 
as  a matter  of  principle  may  quietly  investigate  and  analyze  as 
if  they  did  not  exist.  He  will  soon  perceive  his  error.  Freud 
emphasizes  f that  typical  symbols  occasionally  occur  atypically 
and  Stekel,  who  according  to  his  confession,  often  errs  in  this 
respect,  recommends  taking  familiar  symbols  into  consideration 
only  as  possible  solutions.! 

Freud  says  expressly  that  many  typical  clinical  phenomena, 
after  their  true  meaning  has  become  known,  will  some  day  dis- 
appear, since  the  neurosis  does  not  hold  its  secret  before  the 
window.  1 1 


C.  MATERIAL  AND  FUNCTIONAL  SYMBOLISM 

(THE  libido-symbol) 

Herbert  Silberer  performed  no  small  service  in  demonstrat- 
ing the  fact  that  many  symbols  express  objective  thoughts, 

*Jung,  Wandl ungen,  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  262  (feminine),  p.  264  (mascu- 
line) . 

f Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  210. 

t Stekel,  Fortschritte  d.  Traumdeutung,  Zbl.  Ill,  p.  158. 

||  Freud,  Die  zukiinftigen  Chancen  d.  Psychoan.  Therapie.  Zbl.  I,  p.  7 f. 


294 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


others,  on  the  other  hand,  subjective  performances.*  The  in- 
vestigations from  which  his  distinctions  proceed,  are  primarily 
of  synthetic  nature.  Meditating  on  a problem  in  a sleep-like 
state,  he  suddenly  saw  a dream  picture  before  him  which  repre- 
sented the  theme  in  symbolical  form.  He  was  thinking,  for 
example,  of  his  scheme  for  improving  a rough  place  in  an 
article,  and  saw  himself  planing  a piece  of  wood  smooth.  Or 
he  wishes  to  warn  another  from  executing  a dangerous  decision 
since  it  threatens  misfortune  and  he  sees  three  frightful  looking 
horsemen  on  black  steeds  charging  along  over  a barren  field. 
The  analysis  of  these  phantasies  would  yield  refined  details  of 
the  position  and  solution  of  the  problem  of  symbols.  In  con- 
trast to  these  two  material  phenomena,  we  put  two  functional 
ones : Silberer  wishes  to  recapitulate  an  association  in  order 
not  to  forget  it ; he  sees  an  obliging  lackey  before  him.  He  loses 
the  thread  in  his  train  of  thought ; a piece  of  composition  ap- 
pears to  him,  the  last  lines  of  which  have  fallen  out.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  keen-witted  author  omits  the  exact  analysis,  prob- 
ably because  it  would  disclose  too  much  intimate  material.  It 
is  evident  that  in  the  symbolical  representation  and  solution  of 
problems,  manifestations  of  personal  complexes  would  be  inter- 
woven. As  often  as  I have  employed  the  interesting  method  of 
Silberer ’s,  this  union  of  material  and  personal  interests  was 
shown,  for  the  dream  is,  as  a matter  of  fact,  always  egocentric, 
indeed,  Freud  goes  so  far  as  to  say,  egoistic.! 

We  now  go  a step  farther  than  Silberer.  Previously,  we 
showed  that  the  material  phenomena  did  not  mean  what  they 
expressed  but  had  reference  only  to  an  image  of  reality  (146). 
He  who  suffers  from  a negative  father-complex  actually  hates, 
not  the  real  father,  but  the  father  present  in  his  phantasy.  If 
one  investigates  this  psychological  state  of  affairs  closer,  one 
finds  that  in  it  besides  the  conscious  grudge,  an  unconscious 
attachment  is  fixed  by  the  idea  of  the  bad  father,  as  a result  of 

* Herbert  Silberer,  Bericht  ii.  e.  Metliode,  Gewisse  symbolische  Hal- 
luzinations-Erscheinungen  hervorzurufen  und  zu  beobachten.  Jahrb.  I, 
p.  516  f.  The  third  group,  that  of  somatic  phenomena,  is  less  important 
for  us  here. 

| Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  254, 


FUNCTIONAL  SYMBOLS 


295 


which,  the  attitude  to  other  men  and  to  the  tasks  of  life  is  deter- 
mined thus  and  so.  Or  he  who  dreams  of  incestuous  relation 
to  the  mother,  betrays  thereby  that  his  instinct  strives  toward 
her  picture.  Thus  in  the  symbols  which  we  have  to  consider  as 
manifestations,  there  lurks  not  only  a material  but  also  a func- 
tional disclosure.  The  symbol  gives  hints  concerning  the  con- 
dition of  the  subject’s  own  person.  Therefore,  its  recognition 
is  of  the  highest  importance  for  the  healing  of  the  sick  and  the 
exercise  of  pedagogic  influence. 

Also  in  poetry,  an  historical  figure  is  often  not  to  be  under- 
stood as  such.  K.  F.  Meyer  said  that  his  Dante  in  his  novel, 
“Die  Hochzeit  des  Monches”  (Wedding  of  the  Monk)  did  not 
stand  for  the  poet  but  for  the  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

A young  girl  who  suffered  from  disagreement  with  her  par- 
ents and  loss  of  affection  for  her  fiance,  as  well  as  hallucinations, 
anxiety  ideas  and  melancholia,  dreamed:  “On  the  Etzelberg, 
stand  two  high  towers,  one  of  which  I climb.  I am  given  a 
sleeping-potion.”  [Etzel.]  “I  was  there  yesterday.” 
[Tower.]  “The  colosseum  in  Rome;  there  I climbed  around. 
The  tower  in  the  dream  was  much  higher.  ’ ’ [ Sleeping-potion. ] 

“ I do  not  know  who  gave  it.  The  drink  had  the  same  color  as 
the  sleeping-potion  my  mother  had  to  take  when  she  was  sick 
and  could  not  sleep.  I find  it  sad  that  one  should  be  in  this 
condition.” 

[The  other  tower.]  “It  is  empty.  I think  there  of  a pas- 
sionate admirer  and  a beloved  friend  who  experienced  great 
difficulties  in  their  passions  and  are  unhappy.  The  former 
does  not  come  into  consideration  for  a marriage,  the  latter  suf- 
fers from  loss  of  her  love.” 

The  dreamer  identifies  herself  with  her  mother : She  takes 
her  sleeping-potion.  The  old  high  tower  probably  denotes  the 
father.  The  girl  does  not  climb  the  empty  tower  on  which  she 
thinks  of  people  unhappy  in  love,  she  does  not  wish  to  love  her 
fiance  in  earnest,  but  allows  herself  quietly  to  assume  the  role 
of  the  sick,  sleep-desirous  mother.*  Her  life-force  remains  at- 

*Jung  explains:  One  tower  is,  as  often,  the  mother  (compare 
Maria  as  ivory  tower),  the  other  the  father.  The  dreamer  yields  her- 


296 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


tached  to  the  infantile,  chained  to  phantasies  that  have  no  out- 
look, passive.  The  bold  step  into  reality,  she  will  not  under- 
take. The  analysis  nevertheless  acted  satisfactorily;  after 
some  weeks,  the  attitude  toward  the  fiance  became  correct.  A 
sincere  love  replaced  the  faithless  wavering  between  passionate 
devotion  and  icy  coldness. 

We  can  determine  the  meaning  of  the  functional  symbol 
somewhat  closer  still.  In  order  not  to  create  the  impression 
that  we  are  dealing  with  isolated  instances,  I beg  to  give  still 
another  dream.  It  concerned  a man  in  the  thirties,  who  had 
been  married  nine  years,  whose  young,  pretty  and  good-natured 
wife  felt  unhappy  and  directed  her  love  passionately  upon  an 
old  gentleman,  a very  plain  substitute  for  her  father.  Her 
physically  superior  husband,  she  underestimated,  called  him 
terribly  tiresome  in  spite  of  his  culture,  was  angry  at  his  rare 
courtesy  and  tenderness  and  wished  either  to  get  a divorce  and 
marry  the  old  sport  or  die.  In  such  eases,  it  is  necessary  to 
analyze  both  husband  and  wife.  The  obsession  of  the  desper- 
ate wife  who  had  suffered  severely  ever  since  the  beginning  of 
her  married  life  from  her  obsessional  love  for  the  father-sub- 
stitute, was  easy  to  eliminate.  Still,  the  husband  rendered 
difficult  a complete  regulation  of  the  marital  conditions  since  he 
treated  his  wife  like  a sister  and  was  afraid  of  a child.  The 
following  dream  shows  the  reason ; it  was  brought  out  at  the 
first  consultation : 

“I  was  on  a balloon  journey.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Frauenfeld,  we  climbed  out  of  the  basket.  For  the  passage,  I 
had  paid  one  hundred  francs.  Here,  more  was  demanded  since 
the  trip  took  considerably  longer  than  had  been  specified.  I 
was  afraid  that  it  might  be  eight  hundred  or  one  thousand 
francs.  It  seemed  as  if  I heard  this  price  mentioned.  I 
thought,  how  shall  I get  this  sum.  I asked  myself  how  should 
I pay  it  since  in  neighboring  H.,  at  a rifle-match,  I had  shot 
away  so  much  money  and  on  account  of  bad  weather,  had  hit 
little.  My  colleague  M.  was  also  on  the  trip  and  reviled  me. 

self  to  the  mother  and  returns  like  Holderlin  in  paradise-like  condi- 
tion of  sleep  (Jahrb.  IV,  p.  424  ff.). 


LIBIDO  SYMBOLS 


297 


In  the  basket,  suddenly  sits  Engineer  N.,  who  would  drive  the 
balloon  farther  by  making  rocking  motions  with  his  body 
as  in  coasting.  I awoke.” 

I give  only  the  most  important  associations.  [Balloon  jour- 
ney.] “It  happened  that  I was  looking  at  a flying  balloon 
when  someone  told  me  of  psychoanalysis  for  the  first  time.  At 
that  time,  the  conversation  was  about  a gentleman  who  lived 
dissolutely,  used  much  money  and  was  to  be  won  to  no  ideal.  ’ ’ 
[ Frauenf eld.  ] ‘ ‘ A friend  is  seeking  a wife  and  finds  none  since 

he  can  never  make  a decision.  He  is  bombastic.  Tomato 
salad,  for  instance,  he  calls  love ’s  apple  salad.  ” [Frauenfeld.] 

‘ ‘ The  barracks  there.  The  Confederation  wished  them  in  Wyl 
but  the  inhabitants  of  that  town  explained  that  they  desired  no 
Confederation  brothel  in  their  city.  In  Frauenfeld,  lives  an 
old  relative  who  was  unhappy  in  her  love  for  an  artist.  She 
did  not  dare  to  marry  the  latter  on  account  of  his  sister.” 
[Basket.]  “Hencoop.”  (Hiihnerkorb).  (In  Swiss  German, 
“hiihnern”  is  an  indecent  term.)  “I  found  that  the  money 
for  the  whole  journey  had  been  demanded  previously  and  was 
embarrassed  on  account  of  the  money  to  be  raised.  I thought 
it  would  be  a disgrace  if  it  were  known  that  I had  so  little  money 
in  my  purse.”  [The  journey  longer  than  presupposed.] 
“The  shooting-match  in  X.  was  dearer  than  supposed.” 

[On  account  of  bad  weather.]  “My  brother-in-law  also  hit 
nothing  and  was  out  of  sorts.  I suggested  sharing  a sleeping- 
room  with  him.  My  wife  said  they  had  demanded  more  from 
me  in  marriage  than  I could  give;  I have  entered  upon  the 
marriage  and  have  seen  that  they  desire  more  from  me.  It 
seemed  to  me  that  the  balloon  trip  was  the  wedding  trip.  After 
the  sexual  intercourse  on  this  trip,  we  were  both  used  up  and 
found  there  was  nothing  in  it,  it  was  not  worth  the  trouble.” 

[Colleague  M.]  “He  is  a gossip  and  faultfinder  who  does 
not,  however,  defend  his  idea.  Otherwise  he  is  not  disagree- 
able, likes  a drink,  rides  out  in  style.  He  was  my  school  com- 
rade. He  is  industrious.  Now  he  possesses  his  own  little 
house.  He  may  have  attained  advancement  by  fraud.  ” 

[Engineer  N.]  “A  roue,  unreliable,  who  was  attentive  to 


298 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


my  wife  at  a ball.  He  had  to  marry  a girl  of  doubtful  reputa- 
tion ; I had  disembarked  when  N.  made  his  motions.” 

The  meaning  of  the  dream  is  clear.  The  balloon  trip  is  the 
wedding  trip  as  the  dreamer  himself  interprets  it.  The  inter- 
mediate landing  at  Frauenfeld  discloses  the  present  situation : 
The  wife  does  not  wish  to  stay  in  her  marriage  any  longer. 
Much  more  is  demanded  of  him  than  formerly : Money  is  true 
love,  which  so  far  is  lacking,  as  the  unsatisfactory  intercourse 
shows.  This  expenditure  of  love  he  cannot  make,  it  had  been 
very  costly  to  him  without  his  having  won  anything  worth 
while,  as  the  memory  of  the  rifle-match,  to  be  understood  as 
sexual  symbolism,  shows.  The  colleague  shows  traits  of  the 
dreamer  himself : He  also  finds  fault  easily  but  nevertheless 
lacks  strong  arguments  for  his  ideas ; he  also  likes  to  live  well, 
longs  for  his  own  villa,  likes  costly  trips.  To  my  question,  why, 
after  nine  years  of  married  life,  he  still  does  not  want  children, 
he  replied  that  he  would  then  have  to  give  up  house  and  travel. 
The  wife,  on  the  other  hand,  had  longed  for  children  from  the 
beginning.  Therein  he  is  an  egoist  who  is  to  blame  in  great 
part  for  his  trouble,  although  he  believes  he  is  striving  only  for 
the  good. 

The  following  presentation  shows  he  refused  the  proper  mar- 
riage as  immoral  (hencoop,  brothel,  roue) . It  is  indicated  that 
he  longs  for  his  sister  (the  artist  who  remained  attached  to  his 
sister;  passing  the  night  in  the  room  of  his  sister’s  husband). 

The  meaning  of  the  dream  runs  as  follows : I will  not  pay 
the  price  of  increased  expenditure  of  love  demanded  of  me  for 
the  continuation  of  my  marriage  and  will  leave  such  affairs  to 
impure  fellows.  One  understands  that  the  overaffectionate  re- 
lation only  disguises  the  deficiency  in  real  love  and  that  the 
wife,  whose  unconscious  naturally  perceives  the  state  of  af- 
fairs and  repays  in  like  coin,  could  not  feel  herself  gratified. 

Thus,  all  the  dream  figures  appearing  here,  embody  the  re- 
sistance. They  are  nothing  else  than  resistance-symbols. 
They  show  why  the  dreamer  does  not  give  up  his  love : Basket 
(hencoop),  Frauenfeld  (literally,  ladies’  field),  sums  of  money, 
shooting-match,  colleague,  engineer,  coasting.  This  does  not 


DEEPER  MEANING  OF  SYMBOLS 


299 


say  that  also  in  other  dreams,  every  symbol  declares  resistance. 

In  these  resistance-symbols,  we  distinguish  one  tendency  at- 
tracting the  love  (fixation  on  the  sister)  and  another  current 
repelling  the  freeing  of  the  love  from  repression  (pleasure 
seeking). 

Which  of  the  two  is  the  more  important  ? Or  is  one  only  a 
derivative  of  the  other?  We  will  consider  these  questions 
directly. 

First,  we  will  recall  that  Goethe  also  knew  how  often  we  have 
to  understand  other  people  really  symbolically.  In  “Tasso,” 
he  remarks : “We  seem  to  love  the  man  and  we  love  with  him 
only  the  highest  which  we  can  love.”  Tell  me  whom  you  love 
and  I will  tell  you  how  it  is  with  your  life-desires. 

(3).  The  Deeper  Meaning  of  Symbols 

According  to  Freud,  the  fundamental  basis  of  the  neurosis 
lies  in  the  repression  of  an  incestuous  relation  to  the  parents. 
Every  neurotic  individual  is  an  (Edipus  who  loves  his  mother 
and  would  like  to  kill  his  father  out  of  jealousy.  In  this  family- 
romance,  lies  the  nuclear  complex  of  all  neuroses. 

Jung,  on  the  other  hand,  considers  the  mother  only  as 
libido-symbol.  The  incest  prohibition  is  only  the  resistance  set 
up  against  the  libido ; the  symbol-bearer  desires  no  real  incest 
but  regression  to  childhood,  return  to  the  mother’s  womb  for 
the  purpose  of  rebirth.  ‘ ‘ One  of  the  simplest  ways  would  be  to 
impregnate  the  mother  and  to  create  himself  identically  again.* 
Against  that,  the  incest  prohibition  protests.  Religions  seek 
to  attain  the  rebirth,  therefore,  by  spiritualizing  the  incest 
phantasy,  for  example,  in  Jesus’  talk  with  Nicodemus  t : 
“Verily,  verily,  I say  unto  you,  if  a man  be  not  born  of  water 
and  of  the  spirit,  he  cannot  enter  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven.” 
Jung  interprets : “ To  be  born  of  water  always  means  only : to 

be  born  from  the  mother’s  womb.  ‘Of  the  spirit’  means: 
‘from  the  fructifying  breath  of  the  wind’J  that  is,  impreg- 

*Jung,  Wandlungen,  Jahrb.  IV,-  p.  267. 

t John  iii,  v.  3 If. 

t Jahrb.  IV,  p.  268. 


300 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


nated  by  a spirit-being  in  extraordinary  manner.”  Thus  the 
person  may  think  of  birth  from  the  mother  (water),  not  how- 
ever of  copulation  with  her.  In  Jesus’  command  lies  also, 
according  to  Jung,  the  command  to  consider  the  rebirth  phan- 
tasy symbollically  and  thereby  set  free  the  incestuous  libido. 
“Thus  the  libido  which  lies  bound,  inactive  in  incestuous 
wishes,  suppressed  and  transformed  into  anxiety  before  the 
law  and  the  avenging  father-god,  may  be  directed  by  the 
symbol  of  baptism  (birth  from  the  water)  and  the  creation  of 
the  symbol  of  out-pouring  of  the  Holy  Ghost  over  into  sub- 
limation.” * 

It  is  first  of  all  to  be  emphasized  that  Jung,  although  it  does 
not  appear  in  the  passages  cited,  by  no  means  always  takes 
the  mother-image  in  the  sense  of  pure  symbol,  that  without 
exception,  only  one  phase  (that  is  psychological  conception)  of 
rebirth  with  her  is  to  be  considered.  Also  he  admits  that  the 
actual  incest  desire  often  actually  prevails,  even  at  the  time 
when  a present  inhibition  has  brought  about  a regression  to 
infantile  desires.  Herein,  he  is  right,  though  I wish  that  I 
could  contradict  it. 

What  the  symbolical  interpretation  of  the  longing  for  the 
mother’s  womb  means,  can  obviously  be  decided,  as  Jung  also 
admits,  not  by  mythology  but  by  observation  on  living  subjects. 
The  following  conclusions  seem  to  me  certain:  We  find  often 
with  certainty  a longing  for  return  to  the  uterus  without  a 
trace  of  desire  for  rebirth.  I analyzed  one  introverted  indi- 
vidual who  would  have  been  passionately  glad  to  live  in  a grave 
his  life  long  as  a Buddhist  saint  and  who  sat  hours  at  a time 
before  the  insane  asylum  with  voluptuous  longing,  meditating 
on  how  fine  it  would  be  to  dream  within  that  place  the  most 
grandiose  phantasies  until  life  ended.  In  his  paintings,!  were 
plainly  seen  the  wishes  for  the  sight  of  the  undressed  mother, 
for  taking  the  father’s  place  in  regard  to  sexuality,  for  mutual 
rest  with  his  sister  in  the  mother’s  womb.  Of  rebirth  thoughts, 
there  was  before  this  analysis  no  trace. 

* Same,  p.  270. 

t Compare  chapter  XII,  section  9. 


DEEPER  MEANING  OF  SYMBOLS 


301 


That,  in  the  talk  with  Nicodemus,  a very  deep-rooted  mother- 
womb  phantasy  of  incestuous  character  is  disclosed  and  that  the 
low,  gross  desires  of  people  may  be  won  for  reality  by  sub- 
limation, I consider  a very  important  thought.  The  longing 
for  rebirth  runs  through  all  secret  religions,  which,  as  is  known, 
enjoyed  an  enormous  vogue  at  the  time  of  Jesus,  especially  the 
Osiris-,  Attis-  and  Mithra-cults.  Just  as  little  is  the  frequency 
of  the  wish  for  return  to  the  mother’s  womb  to  be  doubted. 
Otherwise,  whence  would  come  the  incredibly  frequent  mother- 
womb-phantasies  ? * That  Jesus,  in  John’s  Gospel,  gave  to  the 
gross,  regressive,  incestuous,  mother-womb  phantasy,  an  ethi- 
cally purified  religious  idea  which  gained  the  highest  mental 
powers  for  the  noblest  application  as  sublimation,  is  at  least 
very  probable. 

That  many  symbols  conceal  incestuous  wishes  is  therefore 
obvious  and  just  as  certain  as  the  fact  that  many  incestuous 
wishes  themselves  are  to  be  understood  only  as  compulsory  re- 
gression and  possess  psychological  reality  only  in  the  same 
sense  as  the  insatiable  girl  hunger  of  Don  Juan  who  is  ever 
disappointed  because  unconsciously  and  fundamentally,  he 
seeks  only  the  mother  (compare  page  126). t Whether  the  in- 
cest is  constantly  the  innermost  nucleus  of  the  symbols,  as 
Freud  assumes,  or  whether  the  incest-wish,  even  where  it  ex- 
presses an  actual  desire,  is  to  be  constantly  solved  as  symbol,  as 
Jung  asserts,  is  for  me  undecided.  As  remarked  before  (165), 
I consider  the  incestuous  wish  to  be  the  expression  of  an  actual 
wish  which  bears  witness  to  old  inhibitions  without  including 
at  the  same  time  a sublimated  impulse.  That  one  can  after- 
wards read  in  such  an  one,  is  obvious.  Often,  however,  the 
incestuous  phantasy  already  forms  the  transition  required  by 
the  law  of  reference  to  a spiritualization  of  the  incest.J  Still 

* Compare  my  article:  Zur  Psychologie  d.  kiinstler.  Inspiration. 
Imago  II. 

f Freud,  Beitriige  zur  Psycholog.  d.  Liebeslebens  (1st  article)  Jahrb. 
II,  p.  3S9  ff. 

+ Riklin  leaves  the  question  open  whether  the  incest-prohibition  in 
the  manifestation  has  the  same  value  everywhere.  He  conceives  it  now 
as  real,  now  as  symbolical,  “now  as  sexual  problem  in  the  narrower 


802 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


more  remote  from  this  discussion  is  Adler’s  theory  which  like- 
wise considers  the  sexual  manifestations  as  mere  symbols,  in 
which  the  tendency  to  assurance  against  the  feeling  of  inferior- 
ity, the  enhancement  of  the  feeling  of  personality,  comes  to 
expression.* 

4.  The  Pleasure  Principle  op  Thinking  as  Contrasted  with 
the  Reality  Principle  ; Autistic  Thinking 

In  his  article,  ‘ ‘ Formulations  concerning  the  Two  Principles 
of  Psychic  Activity,”  t Freud  develops  the  thought  that  the 
primary  mental  processes  consist  in  the  production  of  pleasur- 
ably toned  phantasies,  while  the  disillusion  which  appears 
therewith  compels  understanding  reality  so  as  to  be  able  to 
draw  an  actual  gain  of  pleasure  therefrom.  Thus  the  reality 
principle  appears  alongside  the  pleasure  principle  which 
originally  prevailed  alone. 

We  must  consider  this  theory  more  closely.  In  the  “Inter- 
pretation of  Dreams,  ’ ’ we  found  the  following  conclusions  re- 
garding the  pleasure  principle : If  the  child,  after  it  has  suf- 
fered from  a need  (for  example,  hunger)  has  experienced 
gratification  by  outside  aid  (for  example,  giving  of  nourish- 
ment), then  when  the  need  is  renewed,  that  previous  •experience 
of  gratification  is  considered  in  hallucinatory  $ manner,  to  the 
end  that  pleasure  is  attained.||  Our  night  dreams  and  day 
phantasies  are  remains  of  this  long  past  childish  mental  life.! 
Bieuler  attacks  this  view.  “I  see  no  hallucinated  gratification 
in  the  suckling  but  only  one  following  actual  reception  of  nour- 
ishment. Further,  I do  not  see  in  the  somewhat  older  child 
that  it  would  prefer  an  imaginary  apple  to  a real  one.  ” § In 

sense,  now  as  picture  of  human  thought-  and  culture-development,” 
according  to  the  connection.  (Odipus  u.  Psa.,  Wiasen  u.  Leben  V 
(1912),  p.  552. 

* Adler,  U.  d.  nervosen  Charakter,  pages  5,  101,  131,  162  f. 

f Jahrb.  Ill,  pp.  1-8. 

j Freud,  Traumdeutung.  p.  376. 

||  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  2. 

% Traumdeutung,  p.  377. 

§ Blev  ler,  Das  autistische  Denken.  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  26. 


AUTISTIC  THINKING 


303 


that,  he  is  certainly  right  but  he  does  not  touch  Freud  for 
the  latter  has  never  asserted  what  Bleuler  imputes  to  him. 
Freud  does  not  say  that  the  hallucination  brings  about  com- 
plete gratification  but  he  speaks  in  his  statement,  which  is  for 
the  rest  very  carefully  formulated,  of  a wish  which  discharges 
itself  in  an. hallucination  as  the  shortest  way  to  wishfulfillment. 
I admit  that  I must  accord  Freud’s  assumption  a high  degree 
of  probability,  especially  when  one  thinks  how  near  to  hallu- 
cination very  vivid  imaginations  come.  Who  imagines  so 
facilely  as  children?  I disagree  with  Freud  only  in  that  he 
considers  the  unconscious  processes  controlled  by  the  pleasure 
principle  as  the  only  original  kind  of  mental  processes.*  Sen- 
sation must  be  considered  as  just  as  old,  thus  the  reality  prin- 
ciple is  just  as  original  as  the  other.  The  same  simultaneous- 
ness of  the  two,  we  find  in  the  beginning  of  conscious  life. 
Hallucinations  presuppose  perceptions,  thus  reality  func- 
tions. 

Against  the  pleasure  principle  of  Freud’s,  Bleuler  sets  up 
the  autistic  thinking,  t It  consists  in  a thinking  which  is 
characterized  by  “the  predominance  of  the  inner  life  with 
active  turning  away  from  the  outer  world.”  $ In  it,  the  af- 
fectivity  predominates.  “There  are,  therefore,  no  sharp 
boundaries  between  autistic  and  ordinary  thinking  since  the 
autistic,  that  is,  affective  directions,  very  easily  force  them- 
selves into  the  ordinary  thought.”  ||  The  autistic  thinking  is 
distinguished  from  Freud’s  application  of  the  pleasure  prin- 
ciple by  two  characteristics  : 

( 1 ) By  turning  away  from  reality ; 

(2)  By  being  conditioned  not  only  by  pleasure-hunger  but  by 
favorite  affects.^ 

This  second  distinction  can  have  no  very  great  importance. 
There  is  no  emotion  which  does  not  contain  contributions  of 
pleasure  or  pain  or  both.  Further,  I can  conceive  of  no  affect 

*Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  2. 

t Bleuler,  Daa  autistischa  Denken,  Jahrb.  IV,  pp.  1-30. 

t Same,  p.  1. 

||  Same,  p.  4. 

If  Same,  p.  6. 


304 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


which  does  not  serve  the  elimination  of  pain  and  gaining  of 
pleasure,  even  where  this  acquirement  is  not  conscious.  When 
Bleuler  refers  to  the  delusion  of  littleness  or  delusion  of  grave 
offence  “which  may  be  brought  into  the  pleasure  principle  only 
by  long  hypothetical  by-ways,”  I cannot  agree  with  him.  I 
have  frequently  seen  the  pleasure  of  self-minimization  and 
self-martyrdom,  like  other  masochistic  impulses,  as  conscious  or 
unconscious  motives  and  hence  do  not  see  why  they  should  be 
withdrawn  from  the  pleasure  principle. 

Whatever  the  first  distinction,  the  characteristic  of  with- 
drawal from  reality,  means,  Bleuler  expresses  clearly  only  what 
Freud  has  in  mind.  The  latter  will  calmly  concede  to  his  op- 
ponents that  thinking  does  not  bother  itself  exclusively  ac- 
cording to  the  pleasure  principle  about  contradictions  and  the 
possibility  or  impossibility  but  simply  believes  what  is  pleasant. 

The  question  whether  the  function  of  reality  or  its  denial 
is  to  be  understood  as  an  activity  of  the  libido  alone,  is  affirmed 
by  Abraham,  denied  by  Bleuler  and  Jung.*  Freud  considers 
the  question  unsolvable  at  present.!  We  pedagogues  are  only 
indirectly  concerned  with  the  question  at  issue. 

Jung  differentiates  thinking  with  directed  attention  % or 
“directed  thinking”  which  can  also  perhaps  be  called  “gram- 
matical thinking”  ||  from  dreaming  and  phantasying,U  from 
subjective  thinking.§  For  him,  these  are  the  two  forms  of 
thinking.  ‘ ‘ The  first  is  intended  for  communication,  has  gram- 
matical elements,  is  tiring  and  exhausting,  the  second,  on  the 
other  hand,  deals  without  tiring,  as  you  might  say,  spontane- 
ously, with  reminiscences.  The  first  creates  new  acquirements, 
adaptation,  imitates  reality  and  seeks  also  to  influence  the  same. 
The  second,  on  the  other  hand,  turns  away  from  reality,  liber- 
ates subjective  wishes  and  is  entirely  unproductive  from  the 

* Jung,  Wandlungen,  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  182. 

t Freud,  Psychoanal.  Bemerkungen  tl.  e.  Fall  v.  Paranoia  (Dementia 
paranoides).  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  65. 

% Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  128. 

||P.  134. 

fP.  136. 

§P.  148. 


REALITY-THINKING 


305 


standpoint  of  adaptation  * Directed  thinking  is  entirely  con- 
scious, the  phantastic,  conscious  only  in  part,  but  ‘ ‘ at  least  as 
much  occurs  in  half-shadow  and  a large  indefinite  amount  in 
general  in  the  unconscious  and  is  therefore  to  be  made  accessi- 
ble only  indirectly.”  t “The  conscious  phantasies  tell  us  of  a 
mythical  or  other  element  of  wish  tendencies  in  the  mind,  which 
is  either  not  yet  recognized  or  no  longer  recognized,”  % a fact 
which  Jung  shows  in  a beautiful  example. 

In  these  sentences  the  comparison  is  made  of  “reality-think- 
ing” with  the  grammatical  and  the  “directed”  thinking.  The 
dreamer  also  often  clothes  his  phantasies  with  words  as  one 
may  see  in  the  monologues  of  sleeping  individuals  or  impas- 
sioned poets. ||  Further,  the  phantasies  are  likewise  directed, 
even  though  not  by  attention,  still  by  complexes.  Very  im- 
portant is  the  remark  that  the  “subjective”  thinking — this 
term  also  is  open  to  criticism  If — takes  place  simultaneously 
consciously  and  unconsciously.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  two 
thought-processes  cannot  be  so  sharply  separated  as  is  custo- 
marily done.  There  is  no  “autistic”  or  “subjective”  thinking 
which  may  not  have  taken  its  elements  from  the  reality-think- 
ing. There  often  appears  in  the  midst  of  these  phantasies  the 
need  for  logical  connection.  Inversely,  thinking  according  to 
the  reality  principle  cannot  deny  being  conditioned  by  con- 
scious pleasure  tendencies,  not  even  strict  philosophical  think- 
ing, which  according  to  Fichte,  plainly  betrays  what  kind  of  a 
man  one  is.  The  most  exaggerated  position  in  this  respect  is 
that  of  pragmatism  -which,  in  its  more  radical  form,  makes  the 
truth  of  a conception  dependent  not  on  its  logical  foundation, 
but  on  its  practical  value. § But  our  reality-thinking  is  also 
biased  in  other  ways  by  conscious  or  unconscious  wishes  and 

*P.  136. 

fP.  148. 

+ P.  151. 

||  Jung  distinguishes  with  right  between  language  (Sprache)  and 
speech  (Rede).  But  all  speech  is  also  language. 

H There  are  also  scientific  opinions  which  do  not  deny  their  subjec- 
tive origin. 

§ Compare  the  sharpsighted  criticism  of  Durr  in  his  “Erkenntnis- 
theorie,”  p.  167-177. 


306 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


its  objectivity  influenced.  Ordinarily,  therefore,  I prefer 
Freud ’s  expression : ‘ ‘ Thinking  according  to  two  principles.  ’ ’ 
Where  one  of  the  two  is  predominantly  in  the  background,  we 
may  still  speak  of  ‘ ‘ phantastic  ” or  “ autistic  ’ ’ thinking  or  of  its 
opposite,  “reality -thinking.” 

For  us  who  are  here  concerned  only  with  the  manifestations, 
the  phantastic  principle  comes  into  consideration  only  so  far 
as  it  is  conditioned  by  the  unconscious.  For  a beautiful  exam- 
ple, Jung  is  indebted  to  Anatole  France : * 

The  pious  priest,  Abbe  Oegger,  phantasied  much  over  the 
question  whether  Judas  was  really  condemned  to  eternal  tor- 
ment of  hell  or,  since  he  acted  only  as  the  tool  of  God,  he  would 
be  granted  grace.  He  implored  a sign  that  Judas  was  saved 
and  felt  a heavenly  touch  on  his  shoulder.  The  next  day,  he 
communicated  to  the  archbishop  that  he  would  go  into  the 
world  and  preach  the  gospel  of  boundless  grace  of  God.  Soon 
after,  he  withdrew  from  the  Catholic  Church.  Oegger  himself 
was  the  Judas  who  betrayed  his  lord,  hence  he  had  to  be  as- 
sured first  of  the  grace  of  God.  Jung  justly  remarks:  “What 
would  Oegger  have  said  if  he  had  been  confidentially  informed 
that  he  was  preparing  himself  for  the  role  of  Judas  ? ” t Thus 
Judas  became  for  the  priest  the  symbol  of  his  own  unconscious 
tendency. 

A young  teacher  suddenly  finds  a girl  pupil,  who  had  already 
been  entrusted  to  his  care  for  two  years,  enchanting  and  clever, 
while  previously  she  had  not  impressed  him.  Why  ? Only  the 
analysis  revealed  the  reason : He  has  been  in  love  with  a girl 
who  was  descended  from  a prominent  poet  but  did  not  bear 
his  name.  The  pupil  had  the  poet’s  name  and  the  forename  of 
the  beloved.  After  some  months,  the  pupil  receded  to  the 
every-day  level,  the  teacher  treated  her  coolly.  It  happened  at 
the  time  that  the  loved-one  began  to  become  indifferent  to 
him. 

Many  a teacher  cannot  easily  bring  himself  to  judge  accord- 
ing to  the  reality  principle  the  performances  of  pupils  who  are 

* Jung,  Wandlungen,  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  149  ff. 

fP.  151. 


AUSTISTIC  THINKING 


307 


extremely  sympathetic  to  him.  An  educator  influenced  by 
complexes  can  commit  the  most  enormous  injustices'  without 
having  only  the  slightest  suspicion  of  it.  Yet  the  analysis  has 
already  opened  the  eyes  of  one  and  another  to  his  reprehensible 
conduct.  Our  scientific  judgments  are  also  influenced,  times 
without  number,  by  the  pleasure  principle.  We  judge  a new 
theory  only  all  too  often  according  to  our  sympathy  or  an- 
tipathy for  those  who  put  it  forth;  according  to  the  advantages 
or  disadvantages  which  its  diffusion  will  promote  for  us,  etc. 
The  struggle  against  such  weakness  is  easier  for  us  when  the 
pleasure  factor  is  conscious.  If  this  factor  remains  below  the 
threshold  of  consciousness,  we  fall  victims  to  it  in  spite  of  the 
most  honest  intention,  it  may  be  that  we  escape  the  unpleasant 
truth  by  avoiding  or  forgetting  it. 

It  is  certain  that  the  autistic  thinking  can  bring  about  a great 
spiritualization  and  deepening  of  the  emotional  life  in  a good 
sense.  But  it  is  equally  certain  that  in  the  overemphasis  of  this 
phantasticism,  which  would  offer  a substitute  for  a deficiency 
in  reality,  an  immense  amount  of  noble  strength  is  lost  to 
reality. 

Bleuler  says:  “It  is  so  pretty  to  spend  one’s  sympathy  on 
the  phantasied  Gretehen  that  costs  nothing  but  a theatre  ticket. 
When,  however,  the  Gretehen  in  life  approaches  the  Faust 
devotee,  she  finds  stony  hearts  and  closed  purses  and  a Phari- 
saic kick.”*  It  is  seductive,  year  by  year,  to  sing  her  un- 
fortunate love  in  sweet  verses  but  to  construct  a new  and 
healthy  life  with  the  aid  of  reality,  costs  self-control.  Many  a 
person  robs  himself  unmercifully  by  spending  his  lifetime  in 
satisfying  himself  with  phantasies  and  dreaming  of  white  deer, 
while  noble  quarry  rushes  by  him.  But  so  we  are.  Jung 
justly  remarks:  “He  who  observes  himself  attentively  and 
relentlessly,  knows  that  a being  dwells  within  him  who  gladly 
disguises  and  Covers  up  everything  difficult  and  questionable  in 
life  in  order  to  carve  for  himself  a free  and  easy  path.”  t 
“The  world  of  the  poet  is  the  world  of  solved  problems.  Real- 

* Bleuler,  Dae  autiatieche  Denken.  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  25. 

f Jungj-Der  Inhalt  d.  Peychoee,  p.  25. 


308 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


ity  is  the  unsolved  problem.”*  From  these  considerations, 
serious  tasks  develop  for  the  educator. 

With  the  neurotic,  the-  role  of  the  wish-phantasy  is  much 
greater  than  with  the  normal  individual.  He  puts  his  whole 
life-force  into  it.  He  solves  the  problems  which  life  imposes 
on  him  by  a phantasy,  for  every  neurotic  phenomenon  is  only 
the  automatic  realization  of  an  autistic  phantasy.  It  is  there- 
fore quite  correct  for  him  to  esteem  an  unallowed  phantasy  as 
highly  as  an  act.  To  many,  the  autistic  activity  is  so  dear  that 
they  would  rather  endure  the  severest  suffering  than  part  with 
it.  t 

Grillparzer  describes  in  his  poem,  “Der  Bann”  (The  Ban) 
with  psychological  skill  and  truth,  the  automatism  which 
devastates  life : 

“Farewell,  beloved!  I must  go! 

It  drives  me  forth  in  fear  and  woe 
Forth  from  the  dwellings  of  my  friends 
Forth  from  the  woman  of  my  choice. 

For  know,  when  you  embrace  me. 

You  embrace  no  freeman; 

The  idol  whom  you  adore 
Is  covered  with  grief  and  w'oe. 

The  princess  to  whom  the  world  belongs, % 

Whom  all  adore,  who  therein  live, 

Before  whom  all  beings  bow, 

In  madness,  I have  resisted. 

With  her  sister  ||  infatuated, 

Who  without  home  and  without  house, 

Through  earth  and  sky  and  water  wanders, 

I did  in  mad  chase  ride. 

In  moonbeam,  on  careless  feet, 

I joined  with  her  the  spectral  host, 

And  every  honest  pleasure  renounced 
To  gain  the  vain  mirage. 

* Jung,  Der  Inhalt  d.  Psvchose,  p.  16. 

t Stekel,  Fortschritte  der  Traumdeutung,  Zbl.  Ill,  p.  157  f. 

t Reality. 

||  Phantasy. 


GRILLPARZER’S  POEM 


309 


Then  spake  the  princess,  in  anger  glowing, 

‘Disdain  thou  so  what  I did  hid  thee? 

So  shalt  thou  ever  be  condemned 
To  be  bird-free  e’en  unto  death. 

From  wish  to  wish  in  endless  sequence 
And  restless  as  thou  art,  so  shalt  remain! 

For  thee,  no  home,  no  place, 

No  friend,  no  brother  and  no  wife! 

A companion  though  is  given  thee. 

Thee  will  he  never  leave, 

He’ll  whip  thee  endlessly  through  life 
The  savage  demon,  phantasy. 

He’ll  urge  thee  on  to  seize  upon 

With  eager  greed,  all  that  which  earthly  beauty  hast; 

Yet  hold,  thou  must  hate  all  this 
And  see  the  flaw  in  every  joy! 

Condemned  the  shadows  to  pursue, 

Lover  still  of  the  moment’s  kiss, 

Thou  lackest  the  power  to  renounce. 

And  self-control  in  pleasure. 

Thy  speech  I'll  change. 

Thy  hearer  shall  misunderstand; 

Misfortune  shall  thy  acts  pursue- 
And  ever  two  be  head  and  hand! 

Fly  from  her  who  loves  thee; 

She  whom  thou  longest  for  shall  recoil  from  thee  in  horror, 
Tell  her  that  if  she  granted 
Thy  passion,  it  would  kill  her. 

And  that  the  last  consolation  be  denied, 

Perpetual  wrath  and  sorrow  be, 

So  doubteth  he  to  whom  thou  complainest 
The  reality  of  thy  misery ! 

Go  on,  betrayed  in  all  thy  luck, 

And  court  my  sister’s  favor, 

See  if  what  the  life  denies 
The  art  can  recompense  to  thee!” 


310 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Then  fared  I forth  with  the  powers  of  night 
And  truth  it  was  which  she  had  spoken; 

The  heart  in  my  bosom  broken 
And  the  inner  driver  awake. 

Since  then,  I wander,  banished,  alone, 

Betraying  others  like  myself; 

Thou,  however,  poor  woman,  weep  for 
The  one  thou  lost  eternally!” 

The  autistic  thinking  can  then  become  a burden  when  it 
makes  the  reality  thinking  fall  short  of  full  development.  This 
is  the  case  with  many  pupils  who  spin  out  their  phantasies  with 
immense  demand  upon  the  emotions,  for  hours  at  a time,  or 
carry  their  complexes  in  the  material  afforded  by  these  phan- 
tasies in  order  to  continue  the  automatism.  The  passion  for 
reading  of  many  children  is  to  be  judged  from  this  standpoint. 
This  phenomenon  always  occurs  only  in  children  whose  de- 
mands for  love,  mastery  or  execution  are  too  little  gratified  in 
reality.  From  the  kind  of  reading  preferred,  a skilled  edu- 
cator can  at  once  say  what  kind  of  an  unsatisfied  longing  exists 
in  the  young  book-worm : whether  love-hunger  or  hate,  sadism 
(detective  novels)  or  desire  for  recognition.  Even  plans  for 
invention  often  form  a bit  of  automatism.  Behind  the  avia- 
tistic  endeavors  of  boys,  there  often  exists  that  sexual  desire 
which  also  manifests  itself  with  extreme  frequency  in  dreams 
of  flying.  If  one  forbids  such  automatisms  without  providing 
something  better,  one  blocks  up  a harmless,  indeed  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  useful  outlet  and  easily  strengthens  the 
father-complex,  while  by  means  of  analysis,  the  condition  is 
often  easily  corrected  and  fundamentally  improved.  Excessive 
smoking,  sport  and  other  youthful  pleasures  are  often  to  be 
considered  automatisms.  Obviously  they  are  to  be  interfered 
with  analytically  only  when  they  endanger  the  mental  and 
social  position  of  the  individual. 

The  task  of  the  analyst  consists,  therefore,  very  often  in 
guiding  back  the  pleasure-seeking  automatist  from  his  ‘ ‘ private 
theatre,”  his  “cloud-land,”  and  gaining  his  life-energy  for 
humanity  and  productive  ends. 


SUBLIMINATION 


311 


5.  Sublimation 

(a)  its  psychological  phenomena 

In  every  manifestation,  an  instinct  which  has  been  inhibited 
from  direct  activity  seeks  to  create  an  indirect  expression. 
Among  substitute  formations,  we  found  many  pathological  con- 
ditions : the  whole  array  of  neuroses  and  psychoses,  as  for  exam- 
ple, physical  (hysterical)  disturbances,  anxiety  and  obsessional 
phenomena,  delusions  of  reference  (of  grandeur  and  of  perse- 
cution), etc. 

There  is  also,  however,  a useful  application  of  the  libido 
deprived  of  its  primary  or  direct  function.  It  consists  “in  the 
erection  of  a higher  goal  which  is  no  longer  a sexual  one,  for  the 
particular  impulses,  in  place  of  the  unsuitable  one.”*  “To 
the  contributions  of  energy  gained  in  such  manner  for  our 
mental  performances,  we  are  probably  indebted  for  the  highest 
cultural  attainments.  A premature  appearance  of  the  repres- 
sion excludes  the  sublimation  of  the  repressed  instinct ; after  the 
elimination  of  the  repression,  the  way  to  sublimation  becomes 
open  again.”  t 

In  formal  aspect,  the  sublimation,  the  great  importance  of 
which  for  education  is  easy  to  perceive,  puts  before  us  no  new 
phenomena.  That  the  complex  creates  for  itself  new  ideas 
(analogies,  cover  phantasies,  composite  formations,  symbols), 
we  have  shown  (pages  224f,  245f,  273f ) . We  likewise  spoke  of 
transposition  of  emotion  (page  209).  To  the  concept  of  subli- 
mation, belongs  nevertheless,  the  fact  that  the  pent-up  instinct 
is  expended  not  only  at  the  mental  level  but  also  that  this  in- 
stinctive activity  is  recognized  as  superior  and  of  high  ethical 
value. 

Thus  it  is  no  sublimation  when  Margaretha  Ebner  stills  her 
passion  in  her  phantasies  of  the  figure  of  the  Savior  or  when 
Zinzendorf  satisfies  his  perverse  sexual  desires,  his  sadism,  his 
homosexuality,  on  the  figure  of  the  heavenly  bridegroom  plainly 

* Freud,  fiber  Psychoanalyse,  p.  61. 

f Same. 


312 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


endowed  with  masculine  and  feminine  sex  characteristics,  to 
which  end,  he  changed  himself  in  his  foolish  phantasies  into  a 
woman.  Such  unrefined,  unpurified  eroticism  which  gives  rein 
to  its  ardor  in  religious  phantasies  of  extraordinary  emotional 
intensity,  does  not  deserve  the  name  of  sublimation.  I have 
proposed  the  name  ‘ ‘ elevation  ’ ’ for  it.*  History  shows  us  that 
this  autistic  love-delirium  is  intimately  associated  with  moral 
incapacity.  Viewed  from  the  esthetic  standpoint,  it  is  usually 
ugly — one  of  the  most  beautiful  exceptions  is  formed  by  Mech- 
thild  of  Magdeburg — in  religious  ethical  aspect,  it  belongs  to 
the  most  deplorable  phenomena.  The  worship  of  Baal  by  the 
Canaanites  with  its  orgies  and  Islam  with  its  sensual  hope  in 
the  future  belong  here,  while  the  great  Israelitish  prophetic 
writers  transport  the  libido  into  powerful  social  impulse  and 
an  ethically  important  piety,  thereby  winning  true  sublimation. 
Base  elevations  meet  us  in  the  inquisitors  who  indulged  their 
sadistic  desires  in  the  name  of  religion  in  order  to  do  it  with 
calm  conscience. 

The  sublimation  can  turn  chiefly  to  emotional  expressions, 
for  example,  love  of  nature,  art  and  poetry.  It  also  travels 
very  often,  however,  with  great  success  the  paths  of  the  voli- 
tional activity  and  leads  to  general  usefulness,  social  work, 
humanitarian  enthusiasm.  Finally,  it  changes  the  manner  of 
thinking  and  becomes  philosophy,  mathematics  or  astronomy. 

Examples  of  the  artistic  and  religious  sublimation,  we  shall 
demonstrate  later.  At  present,  only  some  cases  of  intellectual 
and  social  higher  directing  of  the  life-energy  will  be  introduced. 
Freud  recalls  that  Rousseau  in  sexual  embarrassment  received 
from  a woman  the  advice  to  leave  the  women  and  study  mathe- 
matics. t 

Wherever  I found  passionate  devotion  to  astronomy  or  post- 
age stamps  among  married  women,  there  was  always  the  need 
of  love  in  the  background  as  I showed  on  page  207. 

In  a student  aged  twenty-four,  I found  great  preference  for 
Plato  and  Kant  proceeding  from  the  wish  for  gratification  of 

* Pfister,  Marg.  Ebner.  Zbl.  I,  p.  483. 

f Freud,  Gradiva,  p.  29. 


SUBLIMATION 


313 


sexual  need.  Both  philosophers,  as  is  well  known,  deny  sen- 
suality and  admire  the  strongest  preference  for  the  intellect. 

One  young  lady  showed  very  prettily  the  humanitarian  sub- 
limation : As  trained  nurse,  she  hoped  to  be  trusted  with  the 
care  of  her  new-born  nephew.  The  jealous  sister-in-law  de- 
clined her  aid  and  engaged  a stranger  who  by  bad  conduct 
brought  the  child  into  mortal  danger.  The  disdained  deaconess 
founded  a child ’s  nursery  and  thus  turned  her  life-force  to  the 
use  of  the  community. 

Similar  ethical  transpositions  are  described  by  Ibsen  at  the 
end  of  his  “Klein  Eyolf,”  by  Bjornson  in  his  novel,  “Der 
Vater.” 


(b)  the  psychological  process 

The  sublimation  appears  to  be  a very  simple  process.  The 
man  about  town  who  has  his  desires  gratified,  has  no  other  inter- 
est, no  strength  for  cultural  achievements.  The  primarily  un- 
satisfied life-instinct  soars  to  a higher  level  as  the  damned  up 
flood  rises. 

But  the  comparison  limps.  The  sublimation  product  is  in  no 
way  merely  a function  of  pent-up  instinct.  It  would  be  non- 
sense to  wish  to  consider  the  derivation  of  the  law  of  tangents 
or  the  calculation  of  a fixed  star  by  a starving  married  woman 
as  a sexual  function  and  it  would  be  just  as  senseless  to  con- 
sider religion  or  art  or  morality  merely  as  a performance  of 
repressed  instincts,  as  for  instance,  inhibited  love,  hunger,  am- 
bition, etc.  Let  us  not  forget  that  the  reality-thinking  also  has 
its  share  in  all  high  works  of  culture,  even  in  the  logic  of  genu- 
ine art  and  that  the  inhibition  of  the  life-force  in  one  instinct 
may  stimulate  other  instincts.  Freud  speaks  in  the  place  cited 
only  of  mental  performances  which  receive  investments  of 
energy  (from  the  unconscious)  in  the  sublimation.  It  is  also 
obvious  that  logical,  musical  or  architectonic  emotions  appear 
without  being  derived  from  complexes. 

How  the  higher  movement  of  the  instinct  actually  proceeds, 
is  not  easy  to  see.  Durr  defines  sublimation  ‘ ‘ as  the  utilization 
of  sensual  dispositions  in  the  service  of  ideas  and  thoughts  more 


814 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


valuable  to  the  organic  resonance  and  in  particular  also  ideas 
and  thoughts  motivating  valuable  acts.  ” * “ The  sensuality, 
that  is,  the  totality  of  the  dispositions  related  to  the  sensations 
of  special  sense,  the  emotions  joined  to  these  and  the  instinctive 
acts  thereby  conditioned,  forms  the  basis  of  the  human  mental 
life,  from  which,  no  one  who  will  remain  active  mentally  or 
physically  can  tear  himself  loose,  just  as  little  as  one  can  suc- 
ceed in  jumping  over  one’s  own  shadow.”  “The  sensations 
produce,  by  ideas  and  thoughts  centrally  conditioned  and  ex- 
cited indirectly  over  motor  nerve  paths,  the  resonance  so  im- 
portant for  all  mental  life.f  By  inhibitions  of  sensuality  and 
especially  of  that  part  of  the  same  belonging  to  the  sexual 
sphere,  energies  are  dammed  up  which  benefit  valuable  func- 
tions by  appearing  in  the  service  of  their  organic  resonance. 

If  we  consider  Durr’s  “energies”  as  dynamic  expression  of 
the  libido,  which  I think  correct,  then  I do  not  know  what  objec- 
tion we  would  have  to  offer  from  the  psychoanalytic  side  against 
these  theories  and  we  can  only  rejoice  over  the  fact  that  so 
distinguished  a psychologist  agrees  with  Freud  on  one  of  the 
most  important  points.  Only  I cannot  understand  the  expres- 
sion, “resonance”  clearly  enough  and  think  that  we  are  in  a 
position  to  describe  the  sublimation  process  more  exactly  by  the 
aid  of  the  theory  of  the  paths  of  the  complexes  described  by 
us,  especially  the  theory  of  memories,  symbols,  condensations, 
transpositions  and  counter-reactions  (still  to  be  considered). 

According  to  these  theories,  the  life-force  turns  from  primary 
functions  chiefly  to  such  higher  activities  as  realize  those  func- 
tions symbolically,  that  is,  those  that  afford  the  maximal  con- 
version of  the  original  tendency. 

(c)  CAPACITY  FOB  WORK  AND  BARRIERS  TO  SUBLIMATION 

The  neurotic  fixation  hinders  the  sublimation  and  therein 
shows  itself  to  be  the  enemy  of  the  higher  civilization.  It  binds 
the  instinct  in  harmful  chains.  The  sublimation,  on  the  con- 

* Ebbinghaus,  Grundz.  d.  Psych.,  3rd  ed.  revised  by  E.  Durr,  II 
(1913),  p.  685. 

t P.  584  f. 


CAPACITY  FOR  SUBLIMATION 


315 


trary,  creates  life  conditions  for  the  instinct  which,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  affords  a higher  degree  of  happiness 
and  ethical  efficiency.  There  are  people  who  in  full  health 
find  a rich  life  interest  in  art,  science,  philanthropy,  and  re- 
ligion but  are  extraordinarily  reserved  in  relation  to  sensual 
pleasures  (in  broadest  sense). 

Not  all  people  possess  the  capacity  for  this  transformation, 
however.  The  “mobility  and  capacity  for  transformation  of 
the  libido,”  which  according  to  Jung,*  forms  the  secret  of  cul- 
ture, varies  greatly  in  different  individuals.  Many  persons 
have  no  trouble  in  making  the  sacrifice  which  exists  in  every 
sublimation,  the  renunciation  of  certain  lower  desires.  Others, 
however,  cannot  give  up  such  demands.  Freud  finds:  “A 
certain  part  of  repressed  libidinous  impulses  has  a just  claim 
to  direct  gratification  and  should  find  this  in  life.  Our  cul- 
tural demands  make  life  too  hard  for  most  human  organizations, 
compelling  thereby  the  renunciation  of  reality  and  the  originat- 
ing of  the  neuroses,  without  attaining  a surplus  of  cultural  gain 
by  this  excess  of  sexual  repression.  ” f It  is  a thought  similar 
to  that  of  Luther’s  who  took  the  field  against  the  monastic  sub- 
limation practice.  Pure  elevation  of  instinct  which  goes  be- 
yond the  power  of  the  individual,  often  leads  to  fanaticism, 
narrow-mindedness,  narrowing  of  the  horizon.  The  danger  of 
immorality  often  lies  nearer  to  forced,  inwardly  constrained 
sublimation  than  one  thinks.  The  ascetics  who  have  renounced 
all  worldly  pleasure  are  most  strongly  exposed  to  temptation. 
It  is  not  just  to  consider  zealots  for  morality  who  had  fallen,  as 
hypocrites.  Schiller  says  well  and  truly:  “The  fire  which 
the  Heavenly  Venus  enkindles,  is  turned  to  account  by  the 
earthly  and  the  natural  instinct  often  avenges  itself  for  its  long 
neglect  by  a mastery  just  so  much  the  more  unbridled.”  $ 

A certain  amount  of  primary  application  of  instinct  seems 
for  many  persons  to  be  a presupposition  for  sublimation  of  at 
least  a part  of  the  instinct.  I know  an  official  who  had  fallen 

* Jung,  Wandlungen,  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  134. 

f Freud,  Uber  Psychoanalyse,  p.  61. 

$ Schiller,  U.  Anmut  u.  Wiirde  (Abschnitt  “Wiirde”). 


316 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


out  with  his  wife  and  was  a slave  to  drink,  who  maltreated  his 
wife  and  child,  so  long  as  his  demand  for  love  remained  un- 
satisfied. He  fell  in  love  with  a widow  and  carried  on  an  inti- 
mate relation  with  her.  From  that  hour,  his  morals  left  noth- 
ing to  be  desired.  After  more  than  a year,  his  legal  wife  wrote 
the  widow  a warm  letter  of  thanks  for  having  changed  the 
supporter  of  the  family  into  a noble  man  and  begged  her  not  to 
give  up  the  relation  from  moral  considerations.  In  some  simi- 
lar cases,  which  were  likewise  outside  my  pastorate,  I saw 
alcoholism  disappear  in  the  presence  of  love  and  immediately 
return  after  erotic  inhibition. 

The  Protestant  morality  with  its  affirmation  of  the  primary 
instinctive  life,  so  far  as  it  serves  the  moral  idea,  is  thus  sub- 
stantiated by  psychoanalysis. 

Of  extraordinary  pedagogical  importance  are  the  cases 
in  which  a sublimation  is  built  up  on  neurotic  repression. 
The  housewife  who  can  give  her  husband  no  love,  seeks 
to  afford  a compensation  by  passionate  devotion  to  fulfiling 
her  household  duties;  the  merchant  flees  from  his  sexual 
obligations  into  business,  the  pupil  occasionally  into  his  tasks. 
This  work  performed  by  force  (of  will)  absorbs  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  strength  and  easily  leads  to  severe  states  of 
exhaustion.  Such  people  suffer  from  inner  inhibitions  and 
grievous,  unconfessed  self-accusations ; they  must  exert  pow- 
erful effort  to  repress  their  need,  to  overcome  their  feelings 
of  deficiency,  to  attain  properly  their  repression  and  sublima- 
tion. From  this  struggle,  Avhich,  as  we  know,  is  a contest 
with  illusions  and  ghosts,  only  the  conscious  compromise  with 
reality  saves. 

Of  the  many  factors  which  can  destroy  the  sublimation  and 
have  always  been  familiar  to  the  educator,  I may  mention  only 
one,  since  psychoanalysis  shares  in  regard  to  its  important 
theories:  alcohol.  Different  authors  (0.  Gross,*  Abraham,! 

* 0-  Gross,  Das  Freud'sche  Ideogenitatsmoment  u.  s.  Bedeutung  im 
manisch-depressiven  Irrsinn  Kraepelins,  Leipzig,  1907. 

f C.  Abraham.  D.  psyehol.  Beziehgen.  zw.  Sexualitiit  u.  Alkoholism. 
Zschr.  f.  Sexualwiss.  1908,  No.  8. 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOLISM 


317 


Freud,*  Juliusberger,t  Ferenczif  and  others),  have  recognized 
that  alcoholism  in  many  cases  is  to  be  considered  as  the  result 
of  complexes,  as  neurotic  compulsion.  I consider  this  fact  as 
proven.  Even  if  we  knew  nothing  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  in 
deadening,  in  causing  amnesia  and  freeing  primary  tendencies, 
we  would  have  to  expect  a priori,  neurotic  compulsion  to  alco- 
holism. Experience  confirms  this  surmise.  Also  we  know 
something  of  the  causal  connection  between  alcoholism  and  the 
complex,  even  though  not  everything,  and  I am  surprised  that 
Bleuler  disputes  this  finding.  Further,  I consider  Freud’s  dic- 
tum that  alcohol  releases  the  (ethical)  inhibitions  and  renders 
sublimations  regressive  ||  to  be  proven  empirically.  Bleuler 
disputes  this  opinion  and  remarks:  “What  kind  of  sublima- 
tions would  become  inversely  manifest  under  the  influence  of 
alcohol  at  a patriotic  celebration  or  some  other  kind  of  moral 
festival,  everyone  knows  who  knows  how  to  observe.  ’ ’ ft  The 
objection  does  not  apply.  Bleuler  will  probably  only  assert 
ironically  that  alcohol  creates  sublimations.  The  moral  dispo- 
sition at  patriotic  celebrations  is  already  present  before  the  alco- 
holic pleasure.  If  this  disposition  is  inflamed  by  alcohol,  then 
this  can  form  a counter-reaction  to  immoral  impulses  or — what 
I consider  improbable— can  signify  a better  performance  anal- 
ogous to  the  intellectual  ones  which  appear  immediately  after 
the  taking  of  alcohol.  That  the  large  consumption  of  alcohol 
very  soon  frees  the  human  brute  from  the  prison  of  the  moral 
control,  Bleuler  knows  as  well  as  Tolstoi  or  any  other  student 
of  humanity. 

Does  it  follow  now,  however,  from  the  fact  that  alcoholism 
often,  naturally  not  always,  figures  as  manifestation  and  as 
such,  as  we  shall  hear,  possesses  a certain  function  as  protection 

* Freud,  Psa.  Bemerkungen  (i.  e.  Fall  v.  Paranoia.  Jahrb.  Ill,  p. 
56  f. 

t 0.  Juliusberger,  Beitrag  zur  Psychol,  der  sog.  Dipsomanie.  Zbl.  II, 
pp.  551-557,  Zur  Psychol,  d.  Alkoholismus,  Zbl.  Ill,  pp.  1-16. 

t Ferenczi,  u.  d.  Rolle  d.  Homosexualitat  i.  d.  Pathogenese  d 
Paranoia.  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  106  f. 

||  Freud,  Paranoia,  p.  56. 

T Bleuler,  Alkohol  u.  Neurosen.  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  852. 


318 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


or  relief  valve,  that  we  should  fight  against  it  less  energetically  ? 
Ferenczi  said  on  a basis  of  statistics,  the  reliability  of  which 
he  himself  impugned,  and  still  more  on  the  basis  of  his  own 
observations:  “The  destruction  of  alcoholism  is  thus  an  ap- 
parent improvement  in  hygiene.  For  the  mind  from  which 
alcohol  is  withdrawn,  there  are  numerous  other  ways  at  hand 
for  flight  into  illness.  And  if  the  psychoneurotie,  instead  of 
falling  into  alcoholism,  comes  to  anxiety-hysteria  or  dementia 
prsecox,  one  regrets  the  enormous  expenditure  of  energy  which 
was  put  in  motion  against  alcoholism  at  the  wrong  place.  ’ ’ * 

I cannot  accept  this  reasoning.  If  Ferenczi  admits  that  the 
powerful  alcoholic  desire  of  the  neurotic  leading  to  debauchery, 
destroys  the  sublimations  and  is  “an  unconscious  attempt  at 
palliative  self -treatment  by  poisoning  the  censor,”  then  he 
must  fight  sincerely  against  the  enemy.  The  proof  for  the 
belief  that  the  enjoyment  of  alcohol  provides  a defence  against 
dementia  praecox  or  anxiety-hysteria,  he  has  not  attempted  to 
offer.  He  too  knows  plenty  of  neurotics  and  psyehotics  among 
alcoholics.  In  addition,  as  Jung  reproaches  him,  he  leaves  out 
of  consideration  the  social  aspect. 

Certainly,  I admit  that  many  alcoholics  can  be  cured  only 
by  psychoanalysis.  I substantiate  indeed  that  many  one-time 
drinkers  can  attain  by  analysis  the  power  to  enjoy  alcohol  with- 
out injury.  Since  this,  however,  is  not  by  far  the  case  with  all 
victims  of  alcohol,  since  a mass  of  psychological,  hygienic  and 
politico-economical  facts  prove  the  collective  effect  of  alcohol  to 
be  enormously  injurious  and  standing  in  no  perceptible  rela- 
tion to  its  advantages,  since  further,  psychoanalysis  is  to-day 
and  perhaps  always  will  be  inaccessible  to  many  endangered  by 
alcohol,  I would  greatly  regret  with  Bleuler  if  one  attempted 
to  apply  psychoanalysis  against  the  abstinence  movement. 

It  may  estrange  some  individuals  that  psychoanalysis  should 
find  sexual  energies  in  the  highest  achievements.  Therefore, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  keen  observers  of  the  human  mind 
have  . already  recognized  this  fact  before.  Schiller  writes : 
“If  the  sensual  nature  in  moral  affairs  were  always  only  the 

* Ferenczi,  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  107. 


NIETZSCHE  ON  SEXUALITY 


S19 


suppressed  party  and  never  the  coaetive,  how  could  it  yield 
the  whole  fire  of  its  emotion  to  a triumph  which  is  celebrated 
over  itself  ? How  could  the  sensual  nature  be  so  lively  a parti- 
cipant in  the  guilty  self-consciousness  of  the  pure  spirit  if  it 
could  not  finally  join  the  spirit  so  intimately  that  even  the 
analytic  reason  cannot  separate  one  from  the  other  without 
violence?”*  And  Nietzsche  testifies:  “The  degree  and  na- 
ture of  the  sexuality  of  a person  extends  even  to  the  highest 
point  of  his  mind.  ’ ’ t Another  time,  he  says : ‘ ‘ Therewith 
the  possibility  should  not  in  the  least  be  excluded  that  that  par- 
ticular sweetness  and  fullness  which  is  suited  to  the  esthetic 
condition,  may  take  its  origin  from  the  ingredient  “sensuality” 
(as  from  the  same  source,  that  “idealism”  arises  which  is  suited 
to  the  marriageable  girl), — that  therewith,  the  sensuality  is  not 
eliminated  upon  the  entrance  of  the  esthetic  condition  as 
Schopenhauer  thinks,  but  is  only  transfigured  and  no  longer 
appears  in  consciousness  as  sexual  stimulus.”  $ Nietzsche 
puts  forward  the  thesis:  “Almost  everything  which  we  call 
“higher  culture”  rests  on  the  spiritualization  and  deepening  of 
cruelty — this  is  my  hypothesis ; that  savage  beast  has  not  been 
killed  at  all,  it  lives,  it  flourishes,  only  it  has  deified  itself.  That 
which  constitutes  the  painful  pleasure  of  the  tragedy  is  cruelty ; 
that  which  works  agreeably  in  so-called  tragic  sympathy,  in- 
deed in  all  sublime  even  to  the  highest  and  tenderest  thrill  of 
metaphysics,  gets  its  sweetness  entirely  from  the  intermingled 
ingredient  of  cruelty.  That  which  the  Romans  enjoyed  in 
the  arena,  Christ  in  the  ecstasies  of  the  cross  . . . these  are 
the  spiced  drinks  of  the  great  Circe,  cruelty.”  ||  How  sad 
that  Nietzsche  spoiled  correct  insight  by  exaggeration. 

6.  The  Reaction-Formation 

Among  the  sublimations,  under  which  name  I understand 
the  products  of  the  sublimation  process,  there  is  a group  which 

* Schiller,  u.  Anmut  u.  Wiirde. 

t Nietzsche,  Jenseits  von  Gut  und  Bose.  Aphorismus  75. 

t Nietzsche,  Zur  Genealogie  der  Moral,  3rd  Article,  section  8. 

||  Nietzsche,  Jenseits,  III  Part,  p.  229. 


320 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


proceeds  from  the  repression  of  a counteracting  impulse.  This 
group  is  called  that  of  the  reaction-formations. 

Even  in  the  simplest  manifestations  of  the  dream  and  neu- 
rotic symptom,  we  often  find  that  an  idea  to  be  expressed,  is 
denoted  by  its  opposite.  This  inversion,  Freud  calls  indeed 
“one  of  the  favorite  means  of  representation  capable  of 
the  most  many-sided  application  in  the  dream  work.  ” * I my- 
self have  not  met  the  condition  so  often.  In  some  cases,  the 
representation  by  opposite  was  also  conditioned  by  a positive 
motive.  If,  for  example,  according  to  Spielrein,!  the  sexual 
activity  is  expressed  by  death  symbolism,  then  I would  trace 
this  incontestable  phenomenon  back  not  only  with  her  to  the 
negative  mechanism  but  also  and  chiefly  to  the  disappearance  of 
the  senses  in  the  ecstasy.  Or  when  Jung,  at  that  time  still 
assistant  physician,  is  dreamed  of  as  a little  man  with  beard  and 
no  longer  young, t so  there  again,  a positive  basis  may  be 
coactive : the  jeer  at  him  by  the  comparison  with  a superior  who 
showed  the  characteristics  named. 

Still,  as  mentioned,  I admit  representation  by  opposite.  The 
normal  life  shows  the  same  process:  irony  and  contradictory 
meaning  of  primitive  words.||  Freud  discusses  the  latter  in 
his  article  on  a work  of  Karl  Abel  who  shows  that  in  the 
Egyptian,  a considerable  number  of  words  denote  a thing  and 
its  opposite.  ‘ ‘ To  command  ’ ’ means  also  ‘ ‘ to  obey,  ” “ strong  ’ ’ 
means  also  “weak,”  etc.  The  Latin  “altus”  means  “high” 
and  “deep.”  Language  also  shows  another  favorite  inversion 

* Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  238. 

f S.  Spielrein,  u.  d.  psycholog.  Inhalt  eines  Falles  von  Schizophrenic. 
Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  400. 

t Zbl.  I,  p.  267. 

||  Here  the  inversion  is  also  to  be  mentioned.  Among  the  ancients, 
one  often  finds  mirror-writing,  of  which  Leonardo  da  Vinci  also  fre- 
quently made  use.  The  child  too  loves  this  old  mannerism  at 
a certain  age,  as  speaking  backwards.  Bertha  Mercator,  in  a little 
novel,  has  an  old  professor  say  to  a young  nurse:  “You  old  boy? 
Do  you  not  understand?  This  is  a circumlocution.  Just  when  it 
is  clear  to  me  that  you  are  a pretty,  very  young  girl,  then  I must 
call  you  ‘old  boy’  else  I would  become  sentimental  which  is  disgusting 
to  me.” 


REACTION-FORMATIONS 


321 


found  in  automatic  secret  speech  and  hysteria,  for  example, 
“Topf”  is  called  pot  in  English,  Balken:  klobe,  club.* 

In  the  reaction-formation,  the  life-force  which  belongs  to  a 
repressed,  thus  unconscious,  instinctive  activity,  applies  itself 
to  a manifestation  which  pursues  the  opposite  direction,  either 
on  the  same  level  or  a higher  one.  Bleuler  calls  the  instincts 
appearing  in  contrasting  pairs  or  the  ideas  accompanied  simul- 
taneously by  positive  and  negative  emotions,  ambivalent. t We 
meet  an  ambivalence  of  a higher  order  in  the  reaction-forma- 
tion. 

A lady  of  thirty-seven  years  suffered  from  fanaticism  over 
purification  and  truth.  She  washed  herself  daily  for  many 
hours  and  daily  put  on  fresh  underwear.  Because  for  reasons 
of  affection,  she  concealed  from  her  husband  that  though  full 
of  admiration  for  him,  she  did  not  love  him  as  dearly  as  she 
wished,  she  suffered  unspeakably  but  did  not  dare  to  make  him 
unhappy.  As  a child,  she  was  extremely  unclean,  wetting  her 
bed  until  her  tenth  year.  In  school,  she  experienced  a scene 
which  troubles  her  even  to-day:  She  declared  a circle  to  be 
drawn  free-hand,  but  the  teacher  discovered  the  hole  made  by 
the  point  of  the  compass. 

The  fanatical  adherent  of  nature-cures,  who  makes  a tre- 
mendous cult  of  health,  proves  without  exception  in  cases 
analyzed  by  me,  to  be  a neurotic,  who  would  drown  out  the 
consciousness  of  illness.  In  so  doing,  many  fall  into  the  most 
unnatural  activities. 

The  man  who  is  horrified  at  the  nude,  who  goes  into  a rage 
over  a harmless  clay  model,  regularly  discloses  in  the  analysis 
a mass  of  dirty  wishes  which  are  held  in  check  only  -with  diffi- 
culty. Fanaticism  over  morality  is  often  merely  a refuge  for 
weak  voluptuaries  who  are  afraid  of  sinking  in  the  mire  of 
wickedness. 

The  flatterer  conceals  by  his  cringing  nature  his  evil  mind. 
He  cannot  disclose  how  he  feels  because  he  would  betray  him- 
self. His  reaction-conduct  looks  forced,  insincere. 

* Freud,  ti.  d.  Gegensinn  der  Urworte.  Jahrb.  IT,  pp.  179-1S4. 

t Bleuler,  Das  autistisclie  Denken,  Jalirb.  IV,  p.  20. 


322 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


One  whose  harmless  joys  of  childhood  were  embittered  by 
over-austere  parents,  turns  to  a gloomy  Puritanism  which  is 
far  separated  from  liberal  charity.* 

The  gushing  harlequin  and  joke-maker  is  uncommonly  often, 
certainly  in  a majority  of  instances,  an  unhappy  person  who 
wishes  to  get  a double  value  from  the  moment,  for  behind  him 
lurks  dire  misery. 

We  have  already  discussed  the  fact  that  the  desire,  torn  from 
an  erotic  object  and  repressed,  often  turns  to  a contrasting 
substitute,  a person  who  possesses  the  opposite  characteristics. 

Wherever  an  expression  of  will  appears  very  extreme,  fanati- 
cal, strikingly  one-sided,  the  suspicion  is  aroused  that  we  are 
dealing  with  a reaction-formation. 

The  importance  of  the  subject  causes  me  to  add  a few  addi- 
tional examples:  A girl,  aged  fifteen,  loves  the  mother  as 
passionately  as  she  hates  the  drunken  step-father.  If  the 
former  does  not  come  home  at  the  minute  expected,  the  child 
suffers  a severe  anxiety  attack  and  runs  weeping  through  the 
streets  seeking  for  her.  In  her  dreams,  she  regularly  sees  the 
mother  dead.  Some  time  before,  she  was  in  the  habit  of  wan- 
dering at  night  and  at  that  time  went  to  an  umbrella-stand  in 
the  dark  hall,  from  which  she  could  not  free  herself,  so  that  she 
awoke  with  loud  cries  of  anxiety,  whereupon  the  parents  ran 
to  her  aid.  Asked  for  her  associations  to  that  place,  the  girl 
said  at  once  that  she  was  afraid  a man  would  step  forth  there. 
This  man,  she  described  with  the  characteristics  of  her  step- 
father who  put  his  umbrella  (typical  sexual  symbol)  in  that 
stand.  The  repressed  sexual  desire  corresponded  to  the  con- 
scious hate — the  man  is  too  coarse  to  allow  of  love  being  men- 
tioned— as  jealous  hatred  lay  at  bottom  of  the  unnaturally 
strong  love  for  the  mother  (female  (Edipus-complex). 

A widower,  aged  thirty-eight,  complained  to  me  that  his  long- 
ing for  his  wife  who  had  been  dead  five  years,  was  constantly 
increasing.  He  could  never  marry  another,  no  matter  how 
necessary  she  might  be  to  him  and  his  children.  His  marriage 

* E.  Jones,  Psycho-Analysis  and  Education.  Journal  of  Educational 
Psychology,  Nov.  1910,  pp.  497-520. 


REACTION-FORMATIONS 


323 


had  been  “wonderfully  harmonious, ’ ’ “really  ideal,”  it  was 
‘ ‘ absolutely  out  of  the  question  that  he  could  ever  find  a simi- 
larly perfect  happiness.”  The  forced  expressions  struck  me 
as  odd.  I made  inquiries  therefore,  whether  there  had  never 
really  been  a disturbance  of  the  marital  relation.  The  widower 
reported  that  some  months  before  the  wife ’s  death,  something 
happened,  but  he  guarded  well  against  looking  squarely  at  it. 
In  case  something  had  happened,  he  has  pardoned  it.  Really, 
when  his  wife  was  staying  for  treatment  at  a sea  bathing  place, 
the  director  of  the  hotel  wheYe  she  lived  wrote  him  that  the 
patient  was  excited  by  a love-affair,  the  husband  might 
straighten  it  out.  The  wife  declared  herself  innocent ; an  in- 
vestigation cleared  the  way  for  her  husband.  It  turned  out 
further  that  sexual  intercourse  had  been  discontinued  long  be- 
fore. It  came  to  light  further  that  the  wife,  after  she  had 
clung  to  him  in  the  first  years  of  their  wedded  life,  had  taken 
sides  against  him  in  favor  of  her  mother,  while  he  had  inwardly 
returned  to  his  own  mother.  In  short,  the  marriage  had  really 
been  unsettled  but  the  widower  clung  to  an  illusion  which  he 
had  constructed  out  of  the  first  part  of  his  married  life. 

A dream  revealed  the  true  ground : he  lies  undressed  in  bed ; 
his  mother  goes  by  the  window  and  sees  him.  Analysis : The 
day  before,  a charming  lady  who  was  in  love  with  him  and 
whom  he  had  courted  for  a year,  had  gone  by.  From  the  lady, 
he  makes  his  mother  to  whom  he  loves  to  show  himself  in  the 
manner  of  a love-hungry  child.  One  understands  now  why 
the  man,  whose  sexuality  is  fixed  in  the  infantile  exhibitionism 
in  respect  to  the  mother,  incapable  of  love,  glorified  the  earlier 
love. 

I found  quite  similar  motives  in  a man  of  some  fifty  years 
who,  after  the  sudden  death  of  his  wife,  suffered  from  a severe 
anxiety  neurosis.  He  accused  himself  of  having  called  too  few 
physicians  to  the  death-bed  of  his  wife  and  thus  to  have  been 
guilty  of  her  death.  His  marriage  had  been  of  wonderful  sin- 
cerity, there  never  lived  two  people  so  suited  to  each  other,  so 
devoted  to  all  noble,  public-spirited  works,  as  he  and  his  wife, 
etc.  That  sounded  very  fine  but  still  I was  not  surprised  when 


324< 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


the  morally  vain  man  disclosed  himself  as  syphilitic  who  had 
had  no  conjugal  intercourse  for  years  and  had  oppressed  his 
wife  with  brutality.  The  undoubtedly  very  intimate  love  in 
consciousness  was  only  the  reverse  side  of  a deep  estrangement. 

Among  the  reaction-formations,  two  kinds  are  to  he  differ- 
entiated: some  as  additional  affirmation,  others  as  additional 
negation.  The  pastor’s  son,  too  strictly  educated,  can  tend 
either  to  Catholicism  or  political  absolutism  and  find  a father- 
substitute  with  fanatical  zeal  in  priest  or  sovereign,  or  he  may 
become  libertine,  revolutionary  or  anarchist.  He  who  has 
fallen  out  with  the  mother  may  easily  fall  passionately  in  love 
with  an  elderly  lady  or  hate  all  girls. 

The  reaction-formations  are  in  no  way  so  good  from  the 
ethical  standpoint  as  one  is  often  tempted  to  believe.  Freud 
says  in  one  place : “He  who  has  become  overgood  from  violent 
suppression  of  a constitutional  tendency  to  hard-heartedness 
and  cruelty,  will  frequently  expend  so  much  energy  in  the  effort 
that  he  will  not  execute  everything  which  corresponds  to  his 
compensation-impulses,  and  on  the  wffiole,  will  accomplish 
rather  less  good  than  he  would  have  brought  about  without  sup- 
pression.”* Therewith,  it  naturally  would  not  be  recom- 
mended to  yield  the  reins  to  cruelty  but  it  indicates  the  neces- 
sity for  a rational  sublimation.  Every  unprejudiced  indi- 
vidual will  admit  that  the  enemy  to  enlightenment  whose  nar- 
row-minded strictness  vexes  youth,  does  less  and  can  do  less 
for  charity  than  the  individual  who  has  grown  in  the  light  of  a 
broad  friendliness.! 

7.  The  Rationalization 

If  one  gives  to  the  suitable  subject  in  hypnosis  a command 
■which  is  to  be  executed  only  after  the  subject ’s  awakening,  then 
the  subject  becomes  obedient  to  the  order,  the  origin  of  which 
is  entirely  hidden  from  him.  If  he  gives  himself  or  others 

* Freud,  Die  “kulturelle”  Sexualmoral  und  die  moderne  Nervositiit. 
Kl.  Schriften  II,  p.  196. 

f We  shall  see  that  in  the  place  of  the  counter-reaction  in  the  mani- 
festation, dependent  on  unconscious  instinctive  impulses,  the  clearly 
elucidated  reaction  based  on  control  of  instinct  should  appear. 


RATIONALIZATIONS 


325 


justification  for  his  action,  he  devises  instead  of  the  real  ground 
for  action,  some  kind  of  excuse  or  other,  as  plausible  as  possible. 
Forel  gives  two  simple  examples:  He  says  to  a hypnotized 
person:  “After  you  awaken,  the  idea  will  come  to  you  to  put 
the  chair  there,  on  the  table.  ...”  The  one  commanded, 
obeys.  Asked  for  his  motive,  he  says  the  chair  was  in  his  way. 
The  suggestion  that  he  will  take  a hand  toAvel  and  wfipe  his 
face,  he  likewise  executed ; as  reason  for  the  action,  the  asser- 
tion that  he  has  perspired  so  freely,  serves.*  Such  an  argu- 
mentation which  wishes  to  give  a rational  reason  for  an  action 
(often  a thought  process)  which  proceeds  from  unconscious 
motives,  is  called,  in  accordance  with  Jones’  proposal,  rational- 
ization. 

This  process  plays  a role  in  daily  life  which  is  scarcely  to  be 
overestimated  so  that  the  educator  must  be  thoroughly  familiar 
with  it.  All  feelings  and  actions  are  rooted  in  good  part  in  the 
unconscious  and  so  far  as  they  rest  on  rational  motives,  it  is  a 
rationalization.' 

Someone  would  submit  to  an  analysis  which  he  has  recog- 
nized as  beneficial.  But  he  finds  a thousand  objections  which 
he  himself  believes : His  parents  will  be  compromised  by  his 
confession,  the  educator  might  have  been  guilty  of  an  indiscre- 
tion, he  would  lose  his  independence.  Or,  during  the  analysis, 
the  explorer  is  now  too  cool,  now  too  cordial,  his  face  is  unsym- 
pathetic, his  voice  sounds  hypocritical,  he  is  capricious,  ambi- 
tious, etc.  And  yet  the  motive  lies  in  resistances  against  rend- 
ering conscious  of  unpleasant  occurrences  supposedly  overcome, 
and  against  the  new-canalization  of  the  instinct,  against  the 
revelation  of  infantile  wishes  and  against  the  mastery  of  reality. 
Or  transference  processes  take  part,  which  we  will  discuss  later. 

A young  analytic  patient  feels  every  morning  a dislike  for 
her  fiance  who  at  evening  is  entirely  sympathetic  to  her.  She 
thinks  she  knows  the  exact  reason  for  this : The  youth  is  not 
so  very  handsome.  The  fact  that  this  ground  for  antipathy 
must  also  have  held  at  evening,  the  otherwise  intelligent  girl 
has  not  noticed.  In  reality,  the  young  hysterical  suffers  from 

* Forel,  Der  Hypnotismus,  p.  32  f. 


326 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


a distaste  for  sexual  life  grounded  in  the  unconscious:  One 
morning,  she  had  surprised  her  parents  and  experienced  an  un- 
conquerable fear  which  she  repressed.  This  connection  she 
found  herself,  whereupon  the  erotic  disturbance  ceased. 

The  choice  of  a vocation  is  also  often  rationalized.  The 
patient  with  obsessional  neurosis  mentioned  on  page  73,  in 
whose  life,  noli  me  tangere,  crabs,  jumping  bugs,  flounders,  etc., 
played  a great  role,  had  to  study  natural  science.  He  sought 
fundamentally,  as  almost  all  his  dreams  showed,  the  sexual 
secret.  Instead  of  this  motive,  he  gave  quite  other  ones. 

A young  man  who  married  the  mother  of  his  friend,  gave  as 
motive : His  wife  could  cook  so  well,  sew  and  keep  the  house  in 
order.  That  young  girls  are  also  skilled  at  these  tasks,  he  had 
to  admit.  His  attachment  to  his  mother,  he  did  not  recognize. 
The  student,  aged  twenty-three,  of  whom  we  spoke  on  page 
269,  did  not  bring  a rationalization  for  a long  time.  He  in- 
formed me  that  he  was  inextricably  in  love  with  a lady  of 
forty,  although  he  considered  a union  with  her  foolish. 

Especially  in  the  religious  life,  does  the  rationalization  fre- 
quently appear.  It  does  absolutely  no  good  to  try  biblical 
science,  church  history  or  dogmatism  on  persons  held  by  strong 
complexes,  who  have  taken  refuge  in  bizarre  forms  of  religion. 
In  a whole  series  of  cases  in  which  young  Protestants  wished  to 
become  Catholics,  I easily  discovered  the  root  of  this  inner 
necessity  and  overcame  the  impulse.  Some  simple  examples,  I 
have  described  elsewhere.  I will  add  a plain  case.  A cultured 
student,  aged  nineteen,  informed  me  of  his  decision  to  become 
a Catholic,  since  he  had  been  convinced  by  Catholics  of  the 
superiority  of  their  confession.  [Did  this  happen  from  several 
Catholics  or  only  one?]  “From  one.”  [Or  perhaps  a Catho- 
lic girl?]  “That  is  also  true.”  [I  am  surprised  that  a lady 
has  exercised  so  much  influence  on  a man  of  your  education. 
She  is  probably  older  than  you  ? ] “Yes,  some  years. ’ ’ [ Then 

I assume  that  you  love  the  girl  and  suffer  from  a conflict  with 
your  mother.]  “That  I must  also  admit.” 

It  was  an  easy  task  to  explain  to  the  youth  the  concept  of 


UNCONSCIOUS  MOTIVES 


327 


the  substitute  for  the  mother.  Discussing  the  special  religious 
determinants  proved  to  be  entirely  unnecessary. 

One  should  not  judge  such  a victim  of  an  illusion  scornfully. 
How  much  imposing  dogmatism,  what  high-sounding  philos- 
ophy is  exactly  the  same:  a keen  sighted  subtraction  from  a 
theory  which  in  reality  rests  on  totally  different  pillars,  namely 
unconscious  ones,  and  with  these  pillars,  it  must  fall. 

Finally,  I refer  to  a case  which  is  extraordinarily  important 
for  the  educator.  We  struggle  against  ambition  with  beautiful 
exhortation  but  often  accomplish  precious  little  in  so  doing. 
With  people  who  ruin  their  careers  by  disgusting  place-hunt- 
ing, one  often  finds  an  enormous  deficiency-complex  (Adler). 
One  such  unfortunate  person  who  was  consumed  by  ambition, 
said  in  the  analysis  that  he  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  a dis- 
tinguished man,  was  constantly  goaded  by  the  thought  of  chas- 
tising the  father  because  he  scorned  such  a wonderful  son. 
Another  suffered  from  poverty  and  legal  punishment  of  the 
parents.  Both,  however,  gave  ideal  motives  for  their  actions 
in  good  faith. 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE  FORMS  OF  THE  MANIFESTATIONS 
1.  Dispositions  and  Moods 

I do  not  intend  to  describe  systematically  the  whole  of  the 
creations  of  complexes.  With  the  aid  of  the  tests  conducted 
here,  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  detect  other  phenomena  of 
related  nature. 

Pedagogically  valuable  is  the  psychological  understanding 
of  the  dispositions  and  moods  which,  without  analytic  sub- 
liminal psychology,  form  a barren  enigma. 

One  example  begun  analytically  but  not  completed,  we  recog- 
nized in  Heine’s  “Lorelei”  (258). 

A gentleman,  aged  thirty-five,  was  asked  to  be  chivalrous  to 
a young  lady  who  was  visiting.  Although  he  esteemed  the 
looks  and  culture  of  the  girl  very  highly,  he  evaded  the  request 
and  behaved  anything  but  gallantly.  Scarcely  had  the  guest 
departed  than  a highly  disagreeable  mood  seized  the  ungracious 
cavalier,  who  meanwhile  did  not  think  of  a connection  between 
his  disposition  and  the  visit.  Finally,  exasperated  with  him- 
self, he  asked  an  analytic  physician  friend  for  information. 
Asked  for  associations  to  the  mood,  he  recalled  a scene  from 
his  fifth  year:  He  was  playing  with  his  little  sister  in  the 
garden  and  was  enjoying  himself  very  much  when  his  elder 
brother  came  along,  took  his  playmate  for  himself  and  left  the 
little  fellow  alone.  The  young  girl  was  now  introduced  to  him 
by  an  elder  friend,  the  older  one  had  claims  upon  her.  Our 
patient  with  the  bad  mood  transferred  himself,  entirely  uncon- 
sciously, upon  accepting  his  commission,  to  that  scene  of  his 
childhood  in  which  the  girl  friend  was  taken  from  him.  He 
would  like  to  be  friendly  with  the  young  lady  but  was  afraid 
as  a burnt  child  fears  the  fire.  Into  consciousness  came  only 

328 


PSYCHOLOGY  OF  LOVE 


329 


the  end-effect  of  the  ill-humor.  The  overdeterminants  I do 
not  know. 

A word  may  be  devoted  to  the  foreboding  or  presentiment. 
The  clever  Mme.  de  Stael  saw  the  connection  with  the  uncon- 
scious when  she  said : ‘ ‘ Quand  on  est  capable  de  se  connaitre, 
on  se  trompe  rarement  sur  son  sort,  et  les  pressentiments  ne 
sont  le  plus  souvent  qu’un  jugement  sur  soi-meme,  qu’on  ne 
s’est  pas  encore  tout-a-fait  avoue.”  (Hebbel  cites  this  saying 
in  agreement.)  * 

2.  Love 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  distressed  condition  of  the  tradi- 
tional psychology  that  it  knows  as  much  as  nothing  of  the 
chief  forms  of  love,  the  prime  importance  of  which  must  be 
known  to  it,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  origin  and  conditions 
of  change  in  eroticism.  Psychoanalysis  here  opens  for  us 
promising  paths  as  has  been  repeatedly  shown. 

From  the  multitude  of  types,  I may  mention  only  three  which 
are  important  from  the  moral  pedagogic  standpoint : the  Don 
Juan,  the  division  of  eroticism  into  immoral  and  ascetic  love, 
and  those  incapable  of  love. 

(a)  the  don  JUAN 

The  Don  Juan  is  far  from  being  in  all  cases  a heartless  volup- 
tuary, even  though  there  certainly  are  morally  depraved  per- 
sons who  get  girls  into  trouble  with  pleasure  and  without  re- 
morse. In  my  educational  activities,  I have  repeatedly  met 
Don  Juans  who  suffered  grievously  from  their  instincts  without 
being  able  to  give  them  up. 

The  seventeen  year  old  peasant  boy,  described  on  page  126, 
wished  to  defend  himself  against  his  unfaithfulness  by  severe 
pains  but  this  did  not  succeed.  Perhaps  his  symptoms  had 
also  the  meaning  of  a self-punishment. 

The  longing  for  the  mother  is  considered  by  the  majority 
of  analysts  as  the  motive  for  Don  Juanism. 

*E.  Kuh,  Biographie  Friedrich  Hebbels.  Vol.  II  (1907),  p.  127. 


330 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


(b)  the  polarization  op  the  eroticism  into  earthly  OB 

VULGAR  AND  HEAVENLY 

Twice,  I have  met  youths  who  loved  with  equal  fervor  girls 
of  high  moral  character  and  prostitutes.  By  the  former,  they 
wished  to  be  saved,  the  latter,  they  sought  to  save,  which  did 
not  at  all  exclude  the  possibility  of  their  indulging  in  dissolute 
practices  with  them.  Only  the  youth  mentioned  on  page  68 
came  into  my  pastoral  care.  He  had  been  engaged  innumerable 
times  but  only  a single  time  did  he  remain  captivated,  this  time 
by  a penniless  girl  who  had  vaginismus  (automatic  contraction 
of  the  vagina)  and  who  was  therefore  considered  by  him  as  a 
constant  virgin.  With  this  girl,  the  young  and  well-to-do  youth 
eloped  and  married  her  but  kept  his  preference  for  prostitutes 
and  laid  snares  for  virgins  with  the  same  assiduity.  As  soon 
as  it  developed  that  a girl  already  had  a lover,  he  lost  all  interest 
in  her.  Every  street-walker,  he  loved  momentarily  to  the 
point  of  madness. 

In  the  virginal  love-object,  I recognized  without  trouble  a 
substitute  for  the  mother,  but  on  the  other  hand,  allowed  myself 
to  be  misled  in  tracing  the  love  for  prostitutes  back  to  an  early 
affair  with  a girl,  whom  he  asserted,  fell  to  the  streets  on  his 
account.  This  explanation  is  incorrect,  however.  The  youth 
knew  quite  well  that  the  girl  had  been  a prostitute  previously. 
On  account  of  my  inexperience,  I did  not  succeed  in  detecting 
Don  Juanism  in  him  while  I banished  an  extraordinarily  long 
chain  of  phobias,  obsessional  acts  and  hysterical  symptoms. 

Freud  first  opened  my  eyes — too  late  for  the  young  man — 
the  prostitutes  also  represent  the  mother  and  indeed  as  sexual 
being.* 

(c)  INCAPACITY  for  love 

When  we  discussed  deficiency  in  emotion,  the  incapacity  for 
love  was  shown  and  explained  (193).  Further,  the  theory  of 

* Freud,  Beitr&ge  zur  Psychologic  des  Liebeslebens,  I,  Jahrb.  Ill,  p. 
394  f. 


FETICHISM 


331 


identification  and  projection  gave  us  the  reason  for  incapacity 
for  love  (265). 

The  life-desires  in  such  persons  as  are  incapable  of  conjugal 
and  philanthropic  love  can  be  driven  into  thousands  of  chan- 
nels: incest  phantasies,  perversities,  sport,  science,  reaction- 
formations,  pathological  phenomena,  such  as  anxiety,  melan- 
cholia, world-weariness,  physical  defects,  etc.  There  are  no 
persons  with  primary  incapacity  for  love. 

Since  only  a very  few  cases  of  the  very  frequently  occurring 
perversities  have  been  presented  (analeroticism  201,  homo- 
sexuality 203),  a very  plain  case  may  be  added. 

An  hysterical  young  man,  aged  twenty-three,  was  hindered 
from  loving  a girl.  A few  times  in  the  presence  of  young  ladies 
who  impressed  him,  he  had  attacks  of  perspiring  but  to  love,  he 
never  came.  Instead,  he  had  an  unbelievably  passionate  fond- 
ness for  ladies’  clothes.  Not  only  did  he  choose  his  vocation 
according  to  this  tendency  but  he  spent  his  pocket-money  almost 
entirely  for  fashion  journals.  A beautiful  gown  put  him  into 
ecstasy,  while  its  wearer  left  him  cool.  Often  he  traveled  by 
night  in  a gondola  and  hallucinated  nixies  who  teasingly 
theatened  to  put  out  the  lanterns.  Their  veils  were  wonderful 
to  behold,  their  bodies  did  not  interest  him  in  the  least. 
"Whence  came  this  fetichism? 

When  eleven  years  old,  he  spent  his  vacations  with  relatives 
in  the  country.  The  careless  peasant  people  allowed  him  to 
sleep  for  four  weeks  in  the  same  bed  with  his  girl  cousin  aged 
thirteen  or  fourteen.  Naturally,  this  led  to  mutual  inspections. 
When  twelve  years  old,  he  was  often  shown  by  comrades  in 
school  obscene  pictures  which  excited  him.  In  his  sixteenth 
year,  he  heard  the  minister  preach  earnestly  on  the  sin  of  eye- 
lust.  The  boy  frequently  phantasied  in  sleep  at  that  time, 
female  figures  and  had  pollutions.  Now  when  the  minister  dis- 
cussed eye-lust,  a terrible  anxiety  came  over  the  boy,  first  in  the 
form  of  a feeling  of  guilt,  for  he  said,  if  he  had  not  looked  at 
the  pictures,  the  pollutions  would  not  have  occurred.  He 
sublimated  religiously  and  after  conversion,  passed  into  pas- 


332 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


sionate  adoration  of  Jesus — God  as  father,  he  could  not  endure, 
like  his  own  father,  he  wished  to  know  nothing  of  him — and 
somewhat  later  into  fetiehism  for  clothes. 

The  connection  between  philanthropy  and  affection  toward 
the  nearest  relatives,  thus  between  love  for  those  nearest  and 
love  for  those  farthest  away,  may  be  shown  very  prettily  by 
analysis. 

3.  Hate 

All  hate  arises  from  an  inhibition  of  the  life-will,  it  may  be 
from  envy,  revenge,  jealousy  or  unpleasant  identification. 
Love  alone  is  primary.*  Here  I am  speaking  of  hate  only  as  far 
as  it  represents  a manifestation  of  latent,  unconscious  impulses. 

Hate  as  unhappy  love  was  shown  to  us  by  the  boy  who  awoke 
his  brother  every  morning  by  sticking  his  finger  in  the  brother’s 
mouth  (159).  This  common  case,  fortunately  usually  built 
on  nobler  desires,  affords  the  analysis  the  best  chance  for  suc- 
cess. The  wrangling  between  brothers  and  sisters  is  frequently 
a healthy  effect  of  the  incest  barrier  and  deserves  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  an  unfortunately  frequent  concord,  behind  which  a 
pernicious  fixation  lurks.  Of  course,  the  wrangling  should  be 
and  can  be  replaced,  by  tactful  analytic  education,  by  more  ra- 
tional guidance  of  instinct. 

The  hate  arose  from  unconscious  identification  in  a girl  of 
sixteen,  about  to  he  confirmed,  who  told  me  that  she  hated  her 
neighbor  although  the  latter  was  a good  girl  and  certainly  did 
not  deserve  her  antipathy.  Asked  to  associate  to  this  girl,  the 
patient  remembered  that  the  girl  had  a bad  opinion  of  her 
teacher  while  outwardly  she  accepted  his  friendship.  Further, 
the  neighbor  had  a habit  of  moving  her  mouth  in  a manner 

* Inversely  Stekel  considers  hatred  as  the  primary  thing  and  basis 
of  all  mental  phenomena,  even  the  altruistic  impulses  (Sprache  des 
Traumes,  p.  536).  I consider  this  conception  as  erroneous.  As  sup- 
port for  his  hypothesis,  he  adds  that  among  criminals  and  anarchists, 
there  are  so  many  illegitimate  children;  “these  apostles  of  hate  have 
not  been  through  the  school  of  love  in  their  youth.”  But  have  these 
not  perhaps  first  learned  hate  as  a result  of  their  loveless  education? 
Stekel  remarks  further  that  hate  often  makes  its  appearance  in  chil- 
dren. But  has  not  love  appeared  still  earlier? 


ASSOCIATION-EXPERIMENT 


338 


which  reminded  of  kissing.  Further  associations  revealed  that 
the  patient  acted  toward  the  teacher  exactly  like  the  hated  one : 
she  flattered  him  and  ridiculed  him.  Also,  in  former  years,  she 
had  had  a tic  of  the  mouth  like  her  comrade  and  kisses  are  dis- 
tasteful to  her.  Thus  she  hates  in  the  other  only  unpleasant 
traits  of  her  own  person.* 

Sadism  also  often  has  a share.  Tasso  remarks  to  the  point : 
“Nothing  can  take  from  me  the  pleasure  of  thinking  worse  and 
worse  of  him  (the  enemy).”  t How  cleverly  hate  knows  how 
to  adapt  to  itself  all  material  which  is  heard  and  seen  and  revel 
in  murderous  phantasies  without  incriminating  itself,  was 
shown  in  my  article:  “Analytic  Investigations  on  the  Psy- 
chology of  Hate  and  Reconciliation.  ’ ’ $ 

4.  The  Association-Experiment  and  the  “Phenomena 
op  Reproduction” 

(a)  definition  of  the  association -experiment 

An  essential  contribution  was  made  to  the  psychoanalytic 
investigation  by  Jung’s  association  studies.||  I will  devote  a 
few  pages  to  discussing  and  testing  these  results.  Psychology 
usually  calls  the  experiment  which  Jung  with  the  earlier  psy- 
chology denominates  “association-experiment,”  by  the  term 
“reproduction-experiment.”  This  harmonizes  with  the 
thought  that  if  one  calls  a word  to  the  subject  of  the  experiment, 
an  idea  will  be  brought  to  consciousness  in  the  latter,  which 
idea  was  once  before  joined  to  the  idea  denoted  by  the  word 
given.  “The  mind  does  not  take  up  much  from  the  material 
temporarily  pressing  in  upon  it ; but  that  which  gets  through 
by  favor  of  the  circumstances,  the  mind  spins  out  and  inter- 
weaves with  its  own  past.jj  That  is  to  say,  the  mental  pictures 
appearing  in  consciousness,  themselves  occasion  this  completion 

*1  described  an  analogous  example  in  my  article:  “Kryptographie, 
Kryptolalie  u.  unbed.  Vexierbild  bei  Normalen.”  Jahrb.  V,  p.  134  f. 

t Goethe,  Tasso,  IV,  p.  2. 

% Jahrb.  II,  also  separately  from  Deuticke,  Vienna,  1910. 

||  Diagnostische  Assoziationsstudien,  Leipzig.  Barth,  Vol.  I,  1906. 
Vol.  II,  1910. 

H Compare  p.  230  f.,  the  theory  of  the  regression. 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


334 

by  the  past  and  therein  comes  about  the  effect  which  they  un- 
fold. ” * It  is  noticed  further  that  ideas  and  thoughts  which 
are  not  the  same  as  those  entertained  previously  but  only  re- 
semble these,  may  arouse  mental  pictures  which  were  formerly 
joined  to  these  similar  ones,t  only  at  that  time  they  were 
clearer  and  more  diversified.!  As  the  only  constant  basis  for 
the  process,  one  assumes  “a  capability  or  disposition  of  the 
nervous  elements  to  be  aroused  later,  always  easier  in  the 
same  groupings  in  which  they  have  previously  been  arranged, 
and  to  radiate  their  excitations  reciprocally  when  these  are 
once  aroused  from  the  periphery  by  a part  of  the  functional 
complex  belonging  to  them.”||  Under  association,  one  un- 
derstands with  Offner  the  “disposition  to  further  conduction 
of  psycho-physical  excitation  from  one  group  of  ideas  to 
another  group  of  ideas.”  || 

Wundt,  on  the  other  hand,  uses  the  term  association  to  cover 
successive  associated  memories, § though  he  emphasizes  that 
real  associative  processes  can  never  consist  in  an  addition  of 
elements.**  He  lays  great  stress  on  “simultaneous  associa- 
tions,” for  example,  the  blending  of  sensations,  in  which  one 
element  gains  the  mastery  over  the  others  (e.  g.  the  funda- 
mental tone  over  the  over-tone) .ft  Thus  there  exists  in  the 
association  a creative  agency. 

In  the  analytic  experiments  established  by  Jung,  we  are 
dealing  with  the  gaining  of  a new  idea  by  the  giving  of  a pre- 
ceding idea,  of  a “ reaction-word  ” by  a “ stimulus-word.  ” We 
shall  see,  however,  that  of  mere  ‘ ‘ reproductions”  there  are  none, 
since  between  the  two  words,  an  unconscious  thought  process 
may  lie  which  leads  by  a really  productive  operation  creating 
new  psychic  values,  to  a new  idea.  J l On  this  point,  as  we  shall 

* Ebbinhaus-Diirr,  Grundz.  d.  Psychol.  I,  p.  634. 

t P.  635. 

JP.  636. 

||  P.  712. 

fl  Offner,  D.  Gedachtnis,  p.  21. 

§ Wundt,  Grundz.  d.  phys.  Psych.  Ill,  p.  544. 

**P.  522. 

ft  P-  527. 

tt  This  subliminal  new-creation,  the  “disposition-psychology”  over- 


ASSOCIATION-EXPERIMENT 


335 


see,  Wundt  would  be  correct,  except  that  he  drew  much  too 
narrow  bounds  for  this  creative  activity. 

(b)  THE  SCHEMATIC  ASSOCIATION-EXPERIMENT 

It  would  take  us  too  far  afield  to  derive  inductively  the 
association-experiment  cleverly  developed  by  Jung.  We  shall 
limit  ourselves  to  the  most  important  results. 

The  method  consists  in  instructing  the  subject  of  the  experi- 
ment to  respond  to  the  word  which  is  called  out  to  him  with  the 
first  word  that  comes  to  his  mind,  and  to  do  this  as  quickly  as 
possible  and  entirely  without  consideration  of  the  content  of  the 
word.  The  time  elapsing  between  the  calling  of  the  word  by 
the  analyst  and  the  reply  by  the  subject  (reaction -time)  is  ac- 
curately measured  by  a stop-watch  in  fifths  of  seconds,  the  re- 
action-word written  down  as  quickly  as  possible  and  the  next 
word  in  the  list  given.  When  one  has  gone  through  the  whole 
list  of  words  prepared  beforehand,  say  one  hundred  words,  he 
then  immediately  starts  at  the  beginning  again  with  the  com- 
mand to  give  the  same  reaction-word  as  before.  If  this  is  done 
successfully,  one  speaks  of  successful  reproductions,  otherwise 
of  false  reproductions. 

Not  always,  by  far,  is  a conscious  or  unconscious  complex 
stirred  by  the  stimulus  word.  From  thousands  of  reactions, 
certain  symptoms  for  the  manifestation-significance  of  a suc- 
ceeding association  were  found.  I shall  attempt  to  arrange 
these  systematically. 

System  of  Complex  Indicators. 

A.  External  stigmata. 

1.  Conversion  (physical  manifestation) ; hesitation,  stutter- 
ing, expressive  movement  before  or  after  the  reaction,  twitch- 

looks.  It  conceives  the  unconscious  as  potential  energy  to  which  a 
psychic  correlation  may  be  coordinated.  But  the  tremendous  change  be 
tween  repression  and  manifestation,  this  often  grandiose,  creative, 
poetic  transformation,  proves  that  very  much  kinetic  energj  has  heen 
exerted,  consistently  with  which,  an  unconscious  thought-  and  ill- 
process,  succeeding  to  new  values,  is  coordinated. 


336 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


ing,  secretion  of  tears,  sighing,  psychogalvanic  phenomena, 
changes  in  the  pulse,  etc. 

2.  Immediate  correction  of  the  reaction  or  its  beginning 
(mistakes  in  speech). 

3.  Prolonged  reaction-time.  We  speak  of  this  when  the 
4 4 probable  reaction-time  ’ ’ is  exceeded.  One  gains  the  latter  not 
by  means  of  arithmetic  but  by  the  following  method : The  re- 
action-times are  arranged  in  a series  according  to  their  value. 
The  average  of  these  numbers  is  called  the  probable  reaction- 
time. The  arithmetical  mean  is  worthless  because  reactions  are 
often  absent  altogether,  though  one  waits  twenty,  fifty  or  one 
hundred  seconds.  Jung  does  not  wait  more  than  twenty  sec- 
onds; I have  repeatedly  obtained  valuable  associations,  how- 
ever, after  a longer  period. 

B.  Characteristics  according  to  Content. 

(a)  Previous  to  the  reaction:  False  understanding  of  the 
stimulus- word.  Herein  applies  the  rule : The  complex  seeks 
to  interpret  everything  heard  in  the  sense  of  its  gratification. 

(j8)  During  the  reaction: 

1.  Diversions:  (a')  To  an  object  of  the  surroundings,  e.  g. 

inkwell,  window. 

(b')  Translation  into  foreign  tongue. 

2.  Superficial  reactions : 

(a')  Repetition  of  the  stimulus- word  or  previous  reactions. 

(b')  Insignificant  change  of  the  stimulus- word,  e.  g.  sick- 
sickly. 

(c')  Slang  associations,  e.  g.  puns. 

(d')  Banal  definitions  (Imbeciles  present  enormous  num- 
bers of  definitions)  .* 

(e')  Stilted  reactions  (pompous  expressions). 

(y)  After  the  reaction: 

(a')  Perseverations:  An  idea  may  act  so  strongly  on  the 
subject  that  the  content  of  the  next  following  stimulus-word  is 
not  noticed  and  the  reaction  is  joined  to  the  previous  stimulus- 
word.  The  perseveration  can  persist  for  two  or  three  stimulus- 

* K.  Wehrlin,  tl.  die  Absoz.  v.  Imbezillen  u.  Idioten.  2d  Beitr.  d 
diagnost.  Aas.-Studien. 


ASSOCIATION-EXPERIMENT  387 

words.  Often,  one  reaction  follows  quickly  but  the  idea  still 
rules  the  following  associations. 

(b')  Disturbances  of  reproduction:  The  subject  can  no 
longer  give  his  earlier  reaction  or  unwittingly  gives  another. 

It  is  very  easy  to  perceive  that  exactly  the  same  complex- 
indicators  may  also  appear  in  ordinary  speech.  Even  the  op- 
ponents of  psychoanalysis,  like  Isserlin,  must  admit  this  in 
essentials  so  far  as  they  recognize  it.*  It  is  not  well  to  analyze 
all  reactions.  It  is  sufficient  to  test  those  that  are  most  strongly 
stigmatized.  I will  select  some  tests  which  will  bring  the  poetic 
production  of  the  unconscious  plainly  to  expression. 

Stimulus- word : long.  Reaction : long  street.  Time : 7.6  sec. 
Association : ‘ T saw  a picture  which  represented  a long  street 
converging  in  perspective.  On  both  sides,  stood  houses.  Poor 
peasant  people  who  were  going  along  in  a wagon  thought  they 
could  not  get  by  that  narrow  end  of  the  street.  ‘Love  as  long 
as  you  can.’  Thus  sang  a mother  by  the  cradle  of  her  boy. 
The  mother  died,  the  son  sang  it  ever  after.  The  song  made  an 
impression  on  me  although  it  is  sentimental.”  As  the  pupil 
produced  no  further  associations  for  a long  time,  I unwisely 
put  the  direct  question:  Are  you  thinking  of  your  mother? 
Answer:  “No.”  Following  stimulus- word : Boat.  Reaction: 
Port.  Time  4.2  seconds.  Association:  “Sagt  Mutter,  ’s  ist 
Uve!”  (0.  Ernst).  “I  have  often  thought  it  would  be  beau- 
tiful if  I stood  by  my  mother  as  others  do  by  theirs.  But  it 
cannot  be.  At  my  house,  no  one  says  a kind  word  to  another.” 

It  is  plain  that  the  boy,  although  he  did  not  perceive  it,  was 
referring  to  his  position  to  his  mother  in  the  two  melancholy 
songs.  I might  have  brought  this  out  psychoanalytically  with- 
out the  following  reaction  and  could  have  shown  that  “no”  of 
the  overconsciousness  included  a deception.  _ 

The  association  of  the  picture,  I understood  at  once.  In 
order  not  to  disturb  the  analysis,  however,  I kept  silent  and 
seven  days  later,  again  gave  the  stimulus-word.  The  reaction 
was  the  same.  “What  is  probably  lurking  behind  the  pic- 
ture ? ’ ’ Answer : “ I do  not  know  and  cannot  think.  ” “ De- 
* Isserlin,  p.  338. 


338 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


scribe  the  peasant.”  “He  is  rather  simple  but  true  and  noble, 
perhaps  also  somewhat  stubborn.  He  has  a crafty  facial  ex- 
pression. He  holds  the  bridle  in  his  hands.  The  whip,  he  has 
stuck  beside  him.”  I repeated:  “Rather  simple,  true  and 
noble,  somewhat  stubborn,  crafty,  bridle  in  hands.  Now?” — 
The  youth,  greatly  astonished:  “That  may  perhaps  be  I!” 
Then  he  realized  at  once  that  the  street  end  was  the  narrow  gate 
of  conversion,  of  which  I had  spoken  to  him  before.  He 
thought  he  could  not  pass  this  gate ; the  association  draws  the 
fear  into  the  laughable  (simple  peasant) . The  whip  has  sexual 
symbolical  meaning.  The  boy  struggled  desperately  against 
onanism.  Now  the  ugly  masturbation  phantasy  is  interpreted 
according  to  the  law  of  complex-recasting  into  the  opposite 
sense : The  hand  holds  the  whip  in  order  to  direct. 

[To  plow.]  “Scarcely”  (kaum).  Time : 13.2  seconds. 

“I  thought  at  the  same  time  of  sharp  (kiihn).  [Scarcely.] 

‘ ‘ Scarcely  has  one  plowed  than  comes  the  seed.  Perhaps  thus 
with  me,  so  that  I would  not  detect  the  result  of  my  bad  habit. 
To  “keen”  there  occurs  to  mind  a picture  by  Albrecht  Diirer: 
“Knight,  Death  and  Devil.”  The  knight  is  not  particularly 
keen,  he  presents  a quiet,  half-scornful  smile.  Thus  one  gets  on 
best.  I am  ashamed  in  front  of  the  picture  because  of  my  sin. 
To  the  word,  “plow,”  immediately  occurred  to  me  also  the 
place  M.  (a  region  about  three  kilometers  from  his  residence). 
Recently,  I met  some  young  girls  and  went  as  far  as  M.  with 
them  in  the  hope  of  getting  up  an  acquaintance.  I did  not  suc- 
ceed however.  To  ‘plow,’  to  ‘dig’  comes  into  my  mind:  it 
means : digging  after  something.  ’ ’ 

Let  us  seek  the  explanation.  The  enormous  reaction-time 
betrays  strong  resistance.  The  stimulus-word,  plow,  is  under- 
stood in  a double  sense : First  as  preparation  for  sowing ; to 
this  is  joined  the  reaction  “scarcely,”  which  expresses  the  hope 
for  quick  reward  for  giving  up  onanism.  The  pupil  seeks  a 
compensation  for  the  pleasure  given  up.  Of  what  this  reward 
shall  consist,  the  other  associations  show:  plow-dig,  to  seek 
something.  For  what  does  one  dig?  Naturally  for  a “trea- 
sure” and  that  the  young  fellow  also  seeks  such  an  one,  of 


ASSOCIATION-EXPERIMENT 


339 


course  in  transposed  sense,  is  shown  by  the  reaction  “sharp,” 
as  allusion  to  a little  adventure  which  an  acquaintance  with 
girls  would  bring  about.  The  word  “sharp”  refers,  however, 
not  only  to  the  boldness  shown  therein  but  also  as  the  reference 
to  Diirer’s  knight  shows,  to  the  wished-for  boldness  in  the 
struggle  with  the  vice. 

The  word  “plow”  would  thereby  be  understood  without 
doubt  sexually  symbolically,  as  is  well  known  in  folk-lore  which 
is  accustomed  to  use  plowing  as  symbolizing  the  sexual  act. 
The  badly  educated  boy  of  doubtful  morals  wishes  to  change 
from  autoeroticism  to  normal  intercourse  and  this  as  soon  as 
possible. 

In  this  conception,  we  see  the  three  simultaneous,  mutually 
dependent  associations,  “scarcely,”  “sharp,”  “M.,”  ex- 
plained. The  third  stimulus-word  following  was : 

[Table.]  “Flower.”  Time  24.8  seconds.  “Hooked  to  the 
side  and  perhaps  imagined  a flower  table.”  [It  really  stands 
there.]  “The  ‘scarcely’  from  before  started  up  again.  Then 
I saw  almost  as  if  written,  the  word  ‘nose.’  I really  liked  to 
pick  my  nose  and  found  great  pleasure  in  so  doing,  further,  I 
enjoyed  polishing  my  dirty  finger-nails  and  derived  a feeling  of 
great  pleasure  from  the  process.  I registered  these  too  among 
my  bad  habits  in  my  diary  but  it  did  not  help,  I always  suc- 
cumbed again.  Then  I let  it  stand.”  [Once  more:  table- 
flower.]  “I  keep  thinking  only  of  the ‘scarcely.’ ” [Thus  a 
girl  affair  again?  Does  “flower”  stand  for  girl?]  “I  have 
already  thought  that.” 

The  interpretation  is  not  at  all  artificial.  The  flower-table 
beside  the  boy  awakened  the  association  of  “ flower  ” to  “ table,  ’ ’ 
which  expression  immediately  received  strong  affective  empha- 
sis because  it  was  perceived  in  the  vulgar  speech  usage  as  term 
for  a girl.  At  once,  the  previous  girl  phantasy  was  continued : 
“scarcely”  and  “picking,  digging”  again  emerged,  this  time 
the  latter  word  plainly  in  new  sexual  symbolic  meaning.  The 
picking  of  the  nose  corresponds  to  the  earlier  plowing.  It  is  a 
dirty  and  yet  in  a certain  sense,  hygienically  commendable,  and 
allowable  act.  The  finger  has  here  the  same  meaning  as  in 


340 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


nail-polishing  and  previously  given  eases  (finger  under  nose, 
78,  anxiety  on  stretching  a glove  finger,  160,  compare  the 
anesthetic  toe,  176). 

One  sees  plainly  that  in  the  moment  of  uttering  the  reactions, 
an  important,  newly  fashioned  work,  of  winch  consciousness 
knows  nothing,  has  been  performed. 

The  scheme  carefully  worked  out  by  Jung  shows  the  follow- 
ing stimulus  words : 


1.  head 

2.  green 

3.  water 

4.  stick 

5.  angel 

6.  long 

7.  boat 

8.  plow 

9.  wool 

10.  friendly 

11.  table 

12.  ask 

13.  state 

14.  defiant 

15.  stalk 

16.  dance 

17.  sea 

18.  sick 

19.  pride 

20.  cook 

21.  ink 

22.  bad 

23.  needle 

24.  swim 

25.  journey 

26.  blue 

27.  bread 

28.  threaten 


29.  lamp 

30.  rich 

31.  tree 

32.  sing 

33.  pity 

34.  yellow 

35.  mountain 

36.  play 

37.  salt 

38.  new 

39.  custom 

40.  ride 

41.  wall 

42.  stupid 

43.  handle 

44.  despise 

45.  tooth 

46.  right 

47.  folk 

48.  stink 

49.  book 

50.  unjust 

51.  frog 

52.  divide 

53.  hunger 

54.  white 

55.  ox 

56.  attend 


57.  pencil 

58.  sad 

59.  plum 

60.  meet 

61.  law 

62.  love 

63.  glass 

64.  fight 

65.  traits 

66.  great 

67.  potato 

68.  paint 

69.  part 

70.  old 

71.  flower 

72.  strike 

73.  chest 

74.  savage 

75.  family 

76.  wash 

77.  cow 

78.  strange 

79.  luck 

80.  tell 

81.  decorum 

82.  narrow 

83.  brother 

84.  injury 


WORD-ASSOCIATION  TEST 


341 


•87.  decorum 


88.  kiss 

89.  fire 

90.  dirty 


85.  stork 

86.  false 


91.  door 

92.  choose 

93.  hay 

94.  steep 


97.  month 

98.  colored 

99.  dog 

100.  speak 


95.  derision 

96.  sleep 


Even  without  analysis,  one  can  draw  important  conclusions 
from  the  associations.  For  instance,  if  a person  prefers  in 
high  degree  adjectives  of  value,  then  she  discloses  that  she  has 
much  free  floating  life-force,  thus  that  she  is  badly  situated  in 
relation  to  life  and  love.  Emma  Fiirst  found  in  an  extensive 
material  that  in  women  over  forty-one,  this  “value  predicate 
type”  predominates,  while  of  the  men,  only  those  past  sixty- 
one  go  over  to  this  subjective  type.  Betraying  are  the  reac- 
tions to  the  scattered  group  of  four  words : ‘ ‘ water,  ” “ boat,  ’ ’ 
‘ ‘sea,  ” “ swim.  ’ ’ If  all  four  are  strongly  marked,  one  can  con- 
clude with  probability  upon  suicidal  intentions.  The  girl  men- 
tioned on  page  179,  who  had  denied  such  an  intention,  con- 
fessed when  she  saw  how  she  betrayed  herself  that  as  a fact  she 
had  attempted  suicide  in  her  bath  a week  before.  In  general, 
liars  are  often  discovered  by  the  association-experiment.  He 
who  suppresses  a word,  betrays  the  fact  by  long  reaction-time 
or  other  complex-indicators.  Jung  even  unmasked  a criminal 
by  his  method.* 

A number  of  similar  results  may  be  derived  by  careful 
elaboration  of  the  reactions.  The  skilled  person  may  gain  from 
them  a summary  diagnosis  of  his  patient  or  normal  subject  of 
analysis.!  For  psychoanalysis,  the  method  may  be  dispensed 
with  and  is  to-day  no  longer  much  used  in  spite  of  the  ease  of 
its  application,  except  where  a quick  diagnosis  is  wanted  or 
where  theoretical  conclusions  are  sought.  One  critic  expresses 
doubt,  obviously  without  having  made  any  experiments,  on 
the  diagnostic  reliability  of  the  reactions;  I would  strongly 
advise  him  not  to  trust  his  own  associations  to  publication.  He 

* Jung,  Z.  psycholog.  Tatbestandsdiagnostik.  Zbl.  f.  Nervenheilkunde 
u.  Psychiatric,  1905,  No.  200. 

f Freud,  fiber  Psa.,  p.  32, 


342 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


might  reveal  some  very  unpleasant  experiences  like  some  other 
doubters. 

Important  for  pedagogues  are  the  investigations  of  the  pre- 
viously mentioned  physician  (Emma  Fiirst)  on  the  family  re- 
semblance in  reaction  type.*  The  basis  is  Jung’s  scheme  of 
classification  which  in  turn  rests  on  the  excellent  works  of 
Kraepelin  and  Aschaifenburg.  The  reactions  were  differen- 
tiated according  to  fifteen  relations : Co-ordination,  sub-  and 
super-ordination,  contrast-association,  personal  judgment, 
other  predicates,  subjective  relation,  objective  relation,  de- 
termination by  time,  place,  means,  etc.,  definition,  coexistence, 
identity,  motor-speech,  union,  word  assimilation,  complimen- 
tary words,  slang  associations,  other  groups  (false,  senseless, 
mediate  association).! 

One  computes  now  how  large  a percentage  of  reactions  fall 
into  each  group.  If  one  wishes  to  compare  the  relation  be- 
tween reactions  between  two  members  of  a family  arithmeti- 
cally, he  computes  the  difference  of  the  two  percentages  in  each 
of  the  two  groups,  adds  the  sums  of  these  differences  and  di- 
vides by  fifteen.  Then  one  knows  how  much  the  average  or  as 
it  is  usually  expressed,  “the  mean  difference”  is. 

The  principal  results  in  nine  families  containing  thirty-seven 
members,  persons  of  little  culture,  investigated,  ranging  in  age 
from  nine  to  seventy-four  years,  were  as  follows : 

All  children  under  sixteen  years,  had  more  internal  associa- 
tions than  the  mother,  all  children  over  sixteen  (with  one  ex- 
ception) more  external. 

The  mean  difference  among  related  men  was  4 :1,  that  among 
related  women,  3 :8.  Among  persons  not  related,  the  differ- 
ence is  considerably  higher.  Relatives,  therefore,  possess  a 
tendency  to  agreement  in  reaction-type, $ and  this  agreement 
between  mother  and  children  (3:5)  is  greater  than  between 
father  and  children  (4:2).  Still,  the  reaction  relationship  be- 
tween fathers  and  sons  (3 :1)  is  almost  as  great  as  that  between 

* Emma  Fiirst,  10th  Beitr.  d.  diagn.  Ass.-Studien. 

f Same,  p.  80. 

j Same,  p.  110. 


FREE  ASSOCIATIONS 


343 


mothers  and  daughters  (3:0).  The  mean  difference  of  fathers 
and  daughters  was  4 :9,  of  mothers  and  daughters  was  4 :7.  It 
follows  therefore:  “The  best  and  most  uniform  agreement 
occurs  between  parents  and  their  children  of  the  same  sex.  ’ ’ * 

(c)  THE  FREE  ASSOCIATION  CHAINS 

Freud  allowed  apparently  meaningless  series  of  words  to 
be  formed  and  gained  by  aid  of  these  series,  glimpses  of  re- 
pressed mental  content,  t Jung  too  made  use  of  the  method  % 
and  Stekel  applied  it  with  success.  || 

I give  a short-  example  from  a previously  published  work  [f : 
[Water.]  Corpse.  4 Seconds.  Boat,  a drunken  man.  I 
looked  on  as  a drunken  man  was  drawn  into  a boat. 
[Name  all  the  words  which  come  into  your  mind  now.] 
Bathing,  swimming,  bathing-establishment,  bathing-attendant, 
ground,  sea-weed,  shark,  earth,  stone,  spring-board,  air,  chain, 
beam,  submarine  boat,  crew,  no  air,  drowned,  diver,  diving- 
bell,  gold,  rope-ladder.  [What  comes  into  your  mind  now?] 
In  the  moving-picture  theatre,  I saw  two  divers  who  found  gold. 
One  cut  the  air-tube  of  the  other,  took  the  gold  and  ascended. 

[Bathing.]  Because  my  brother  bathes  much.  I also  like 
very  much  to  bathe. 

[Swimming.]  My  brother  asserts  that  he  has  dived  from 
the  spring-board  almost  to  the  bottom.  This  made  a deep  im- 
pression on  me.  It  rained  a lot.  I dove  to  the  bottom  once  in 
a less  deep  place.  Drowning  comes  to  mind.  I saw  in  a mov- 
ing-picture theatre  how  one  drowns. 

[Sea-weed.]  One  may  get  caught  in  it.  This  happened  to 
me  once. 

[Earth.]  The  bottom  of  the  water.  Gloomy,  black.  The 
tomb  in  Busento.  (Four  days  later)  : therein  is  someone  on  a 
horse,  large,  robust,  pale.  It  is  my  brother. 

* Same,  p.  111. 

f Freud,  Hysterie,  p.  241. 

t Jung,  u.  d.  Psychol,  d.  Dem.  prsecox,  p.  130. 

||  Stekel,  Nervose  Angstzustande,  p.  67. 

'If  Pfister,  Analyt.  Unters.  (I.  d.  Psychol,  des  Hasses  u.  d.  Versohnung, 

p.  7 f. 


344 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


[Chain.]  Outside  at  the  bathing  establishment  by  the  keg. 
Arno  once  went  there  into  the  depths  and  remained  some  ten 
meters  under  the  surface  of  the  water  hanging  by  one  finger. 
He  said  then  he  didn’t  care  much  for  life  and  liked  to  do 
dangerous  things  as  coasting  on  a bicycle. 

[Submarine  boat.]  I saw  in  a picture  how  the  crew  of  such 
a boat  suffocated.  (Four  days  later) : [Do  you  know  anyone 
large,  robust,  pale  ?]  It  is  again  my  brother,  Arno. 

[Diver.]  The  drowning  diver  in  the  moving-picture  theatre. 
One  sees  the  pale  face  through  the  glass.  The  man  was  large 
and  dark.  We  received  from  a panopticon,  a life-size  wax 
mask  which  represented  a dying  king.  The  eyes  were  pointed 
upwards.  Arno  put  this  head  on  his  shoulders  once  and  draped 
a cloth  around  him.  Then  he  looked  like  a ghost.  I was 
greatly  frightened.  The  dying  diver  reminded  me  of  that 
wax  model.  (One  sees  clearly  the  work  of  the  repression:  the 
subject  means  the  one  who  lurks  in  the  wax  mask,  Arno,  but 
does  not  allow  this  idea  to  come  through.)  [The  murderer.] 
He  was  a smaller  man.  His  face  was  not  visible.  He  was 
greatly  afraid  of  solitude  and  because  he  had  killed  the  other. 

[Make  a series.]  Pity,  punishment,  captain,  search  for  the 
murderer,  electric  chair,  the  past,  heaven,  hell,  last  judgment, 
God,  Abraham,  Lazarus,  the  rich  man,  abyss,  water,  brothers, 
Lazarus  at  the  foot-stool  of  God,  the  prayer  of  the  rich  man,  the 
man  who  wished  a palace  in  heaven,  on  whom  Peter  had  pity, 
the  man  on  tip-toe  who  looked  through  the  knot-hole,  the  King- 
dom of  God.  (Four  days  later) : The  murderer  is  small, 
agile,  short-armed,  half -sick,  greedy,  brutal.  [Who  is  it?] 
Yes,  I.  I noticed  that  four  days  ago  but  thought  it  had  no 
value.  I am  not  brutal  in  ordinary  life?  [No,  but  you  are 
what  is  so  well  termed  two-faced.  You  harbor  evil  wishes  and 
would  carry  them  out.  That  has  not  completely  succeeded. 
Hence  your  malice,  your  dark  tendency  to  evil.] 

The  detailed  analysis  would  take  us  too  far.  Here  is  the 
result : The  murderer,  Max,  is  executed  in  the  electric  chair, 
consoles  himself  nevertheless  with  the  hope  that  he  might  not, 
like  the  rich  man  in  the  parable  of  Jesus’,  suffer  eternal  torment 


ACCIDENTAL  ASSOCIATIONS 


345 


in  hell  but  will,  like  the  rich  man  in  the  beautiful  tale  of  Volk- 
mann-Leanders,  receive  in  hell  a splendid  castle  full  of  gold, 
standing  on  tip-toe,  one  may  see  heaven  through  a knot-hole  and 
finally  be  saved.  In  the  man  on  tip-toes,  the  subject  recog- 
nizes himself. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  boy  while  giving  his  words,  had 
no  suspicion  that  behind  these  words,  murder  phantasies 
against  his  brother  were  hidden.  And  yet  it  may  be  shown 
with  certainty  from  the  members  of  the  chain  of  associations  not 
reproduced  here  that  they  were  present.  Behind  the  two  series 
of  associations  which  were  narrated  in  a few  minutes,  there 
existed  phantasies  which  wished  death  upon  the  brother  in  six- 
teen ways,  upon  himself  in  three  ways,  upon  other  persons  in 
six  ways,  besides  a mass  of  other  accidents  and  active  Crimes. 

The  value  of  such  chains  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  unconscious 
is  outwitted.  The  painful  thought  can  find  expression  in  the 
disguise.  The  analysis  seizes  the  criminal  and  unmasks  him. 

These  chains  are  also  always  applied  during  the  dream 
analysis  as  the  free  phantastic  continuation  of  the  dream  and 
manifestations. 


5.  Accidental,  Associations 

When  an  idea  clings  to  us  tenaciously  even  against  our  will, 
we  are  not  wrong  in  the  assumption  that  we  are  dealing  with  a 
manifestation. 

(a)  Word  association. 

An  example  of  a word  obsession  was  given  on  page  41 
( ‘ ‘ Pentakosiomedimnen  ”). 

(/3)  Obsessing  melody. 

Jung  has  discovered  that  the  melodies  which  haunt  us  are  to 


be  explained  in  the  same  manner.*  Another  example  may  be 
added : 

A young  analyst  was  long  haunted  by  the  melody : 


Jung,  Dem.  prsec.,  p.  62  f. 


346 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Finally  he  submitted  to  autoanalysis  and  found  it  was  the 
melody  of  Beethoven  to  Goethe’s  verse:  “Mit  Mannern  sich 
geschlagen”  (Fought  with  men).  Then  he  remembered  that 
he  had  fought  an  unpleasant  duel  with  an  opponent.  Work 
pressed,  a period  of  quiescence  ensued.  Then  there  began  to 
run  through  his  head : 


In  vexation,  he  asked  himself  what  was  the  matter  now  and 
wished  to  dislodge  the  disturber  of  the  peace  by  denial  and 
concentration.  He  had  to  analyze  again.  Then  it  was  re- 
vealed: The  melody  was  in  the  student  song-book  and  be- 
longed to  the  preceding  text  and  ran:  “With  men  have 
fought,  with  maidens  got  on  well.”  Then  it  occurred  to  him 
that  he  had  a conflict  with  his  wife  in  which  he  yielded  against 
his  conviction,  which  he  regretted  immediately  afterwards. 
For  this,  the  song  consoled  further : ‘ ‘ And  more  credit  than 

money” — correct,  this  also  occurred  to  the  autoanalyst  in  a 
moment — “thus  one  goes  through  the  world.” 

Thus  the  two  melodies  suited  the  situation  nicely  and  con- 
tained excellent  consolation  for  his  repressed  ideas.  The  song 
of  Beethoven’s  begins:  “Mit  Madels  sich  vertragen”  (With 
maidens  got  on  well).  The  error  shows  the  influence  of  the 
repression. 

(y)  Association  of  numbers. 

(Analyses  of  associations  of  numbers  and  dreams  of  numbers 
occur  as  follows:  Freud,  Zur  Psychopathologie  des  Alltags- 
lebens,  109  if. ; Adler,  Drei  Psycho- Analysen  von  Zahlenein- 
f alien  und  obsedierenden  Zahlen,  Psych-neur.  Wochenschr., 
1905,  No.  28;  Jung,  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Kenntnis  des  Zahlen- 
traumes,  Zentralblatt  I,  567-572;  Stekel,  Die  Sprache  des 
Traumes,  410,  430;  Marcinowsky,  Drei  Romane  in  Zahlen, 
Zentralblatt  II,  619-638.) 

Since  I had  plenty  of  dreams  of  numbers  for  this  book  but  no 


ANALYSIS  OF  NUMBER  ASSOCIATIONS  347 


associations  of  numbers  to  use,  I asked  a merchant  of  middle 
age  to  give  me  a little  number  analysis.  He  assented  and 
named  the  number  24. 

[24.]  “Love,  lip.  2X4.  4 X 4 = 16.  As  a boy,  I cele- 
brated my  birthday  on  Oct.  24  instead  of  23.  Upon  admission 
to  the  technical  school  the  birth  certificate  gave  it  as  23.  The 
teacher  registrar  entered  this  date,  against  which  I protested. 
Smiling,  he  noted  down  therefore  Oct.  23/24.  To-day,  I feel 
as  if  new-born  for  I have  received  glad  tidings  from  my  dear 
girl.  On  my  birthday  I receive  much  love  and  many  kisses. 
Love  and  lips  belong  together. 

2X4  = 8,  4X4  = 16  making  together  the  number  24.  8 
means  “esteem,”  4X4  = 16,  “double  esteem,”  24  “triple 
esteem.”  My  fiancee  shall  for  the  time  know  nothing  of  the 
fact  that  I love  another  more  than  her.  I discovered  a short 
time  ago  that  I carelessly  left  a tell-tale  slip  of  paper  sticking 
in  the  pocket  of  my  great-coat. 

[2X4  = 8.]  Twice  a four-in-hand  team.  Puss-in-Boots 
came  in  a four-horse  wedding  coach.  I took  part  in  the  wed- 
ding of  a friend  whose  bride  was  pretty  but  she  is  a bad,  un- 
affectionate  wife.  I fear  that  it  will  be  the  same  with  my 
fiancee  who  already  treats  me  coldly  and  imperiously.  I wish 
for  myself  a second  more  pleasant  wedding  coach. 

4 might  be  a 4-leaved  clover  leaf.  At  first,  I was  happy  with 
my  fiancee,  now  I long  for  better  luck. 

[4  X 4.]  I dreamed  of  four  boats,  in  one  of  which  I went 
away.  The  name  of  this  boat  agreed  with  that  of  my  present 
love. 

“4”  (vier)  sounds  like  “Fiiiir”  = Feuer  (fire).  2X4 
means  double  fire,  double  love.  The  folk  song  is  not  right  in 
its  assertion,  love  blooms  but  once  in  a life-time  (compare  two 
wedding  coaches). 

24  = 4,  fire,  and  20.  My  friend  wrote  when  20  that  she  had 
to  suffer  much  from  burning  desire  and  asked  herself  if  Ellen 
Key  were  not  right  in  her  contention  for  free  love.  This  dis- 
quieted me  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  natural  sensuality  pleased 


348  THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 

me  which  differed  pleasantly  from  the  cold  prudery  of  my 
fiancee. 

[24.]  The  girl  will  he  exactly  24  years  old  when  I can 
marry  her.  Then  her  extravagant  ideas  of  free  love  and  exag- 
gerated sensual  demands  will  disappear  spontaneously.  When 
she  is  24  years  old,  I will  be  born  into  a new  life,  then  will  be 
my  birthday ! ’ ’ 

Since  this  mathematics  is  unfamiliar  to  us,  I offer  for  con- 
sideration a number  dream. 

“.  . . I hastened  to  the  station  in  order  to  travel  to  Genf. 
Then  it  came  into  my  mind  that  I had  too  little  money  in  my 
purse.  I consoled  myself,  however,  that  there  might  still  be  a 
gold  piece  there.  The  ticket  cost  eighteen  francs,  leaving  me 
six  francs  over.”  [Genf.]  “Some  weeks  before,  I visited 
several  acquaintances  there.  At  a later  day,  I discovered  to  my 
vexation  that  a charming  girl  whom  I knew,  had  stayed  there 
without  my  knowing  it.”  [18  francs,  6 left  over.]  (Imme- 
diately.) “ 18  X 6 = 108, 18  must  be  the  beginning  of  a count 
of  centuries,  I do  not  know  how  though.  (Pause.)  Ah,  so! 
It  might  be  the  number  of  the  year  in  which  we  went,  1800  -f- 
108  = 1908.  When  I named  the  year  1908, 1 did  not  yet  know 
how  it  was  related  to  the  preceding  numbers.”  [1908.] 
“When  I was  vexed  because  of  the  visit  which  I had  missed,  I 
consoled  myself  with  the  thought  that  I could  go  to  Genf  again 
soon.  The  dream  confirmed:  yes,  in  this  very  year!”  [Do 
you  know  what  the  ticket  to  Genf  costs  ? ] “No.  I think  about 
16  francs.”  (We  looked  up  the  amount  and  found  to  our 
astonishment,  18  francs,  65  rappen.) 

“Now  something  else  occurs  to  me.  Yesterday  before  the 
dream,  I told  a mathematician  that  I had  entirely  forgotten  all 
mathematics.  The  dream  will  plainly  console  me.” 

We  will  concede  that  the  operation  with  18  and  6 as  multipli- 
cation and  addition  was  carried  out  right  cleverly. 

The  computation  is  not  quite  correct : It  lacked  5 rappen. 

Sinee  mathematics  in  a dream  may  still  seem  strange,  al- 
though it  agrees  most  exactly  with  the  dream  logic,  another 
example  may  be  added.  An  acquaintance  learned  from  his 


DREAM  AND  HALLUCINATION 


349 


wife  that  he  had  called  out  in  his  sleep : “ 6 X 6 ==  36,  Schles- 
wig-Holstein, meerumschlungen,  meerumschlungen,  ” He  did 
not  think  any  more  about  the  dream.  The  analysis  taught  him : 
“Because  ‘meerumschlungen’  (surrounded  by  the  sea)  was 
called  out  twice,  there  must  be  a duplication  in  the  preceding 
material.  (Who  outside  the  dreamer  would  have  arrived  at 
this  conclusion?)  The  halves  of  36  are  18.  Right!  18 
placed  before  2-6s  gives  1866.  Of  this  date,  I spoke  with  my 
wife  before  the  dream  night.  At  that  time,  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein came  to  Prussia.  I defended  the  Prussians,  my  wife  the 
Danes.  I stopped  in  order  to  avoid  strife.  ’ ’ The  deeper  mean- 
ing of  the  dream  cannot  be  given  here. 

In  the  many  number  dreams  which  I have  investigated,  the 
associations  have  constantly  yielded  the  same  mathematics  of 
the  unconscious. 

6.  Dream,  Hallucination  and  Waking-dream 
(a)  estimation  of  the  dream 

According  to  Freud,  dream  interpretation  is  the  via  regia 
to  a knowledge  of  the  unconscious.*  Psychoanalysis  is  founded 
on  dream  interpretation. f So  much  the  more  do  I regret  that 
I cannot  present  here  the  whole  dream  investigation  in  all  its 
refinements.  For  this  purpose,  a whole  book  would  be  needed ; 
such  a book,  we  possess  in  Freud’s  masterpiece. 

The  estimation  of  the  dream  in  present  day  psychology  is  a 
most  varied  one.  One  experimental  psychologist  explains  it 
most  recently  in  his  lectures  as  a negligible  quantity  from  which 
no  kind  of  conclusions  regarding  the  mental  activity  of  a per- 
son can  be  drawn  and  with  which  one  would  better  not  deal  at 
all. 

Such  an  opinion  is  in  conflict  with  the  everyday  experience  of 
healthy  human  reason,  of  poets  and  of  those  psychologists  who 
consider  more  than  that  part  of  the  mental  life  fathomable  by 
physical  instruments  and  expressable  in  mathematical  formulae 
as  worthy  of  notice. 

* Freud,  Uber  Pea.,  p.  32. 

f Freud,  A note  on  the  unconscious  in  Psycho-Analysis,  p.  317. 


350 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Even  the  Bible  relates  of  dream  interpretations  which  every 
pedagogue  without  more  ado  must  recognize  as  psychologically 
correct.  Joseph  dreamed  that  the  sheaves  of  his  brothers 
bowed  down  before  his  and  the  brothers  reproached  him: 
“Will  you  become  king  over  us  and  rule  over  us?”  The  am- 
bitious youth  saw  in  sleep  the  sun,  moon  and  eleven  stars  bow 
before  him  and  had  to  receive  his  father ’s  rebuke : ‘ ‘ Shall  I and 
thy  mother  and  thy  brethren  indeed  come  to  bow  down  our- 
selves before  thee  to  the  earth?”  (Gen.  xxxvii,  10).  Every- 
one will  admit  that  the  narrator  wishes  to  show  the  ambition  of 
the  boy  by  the  report  of  his  dreams  and  does  he  do  this  without 
psychological  justification?  When  a boy  dreams  before 
Christmas  of  a cannon  as  high  as  a table  jumping  about  his 
room,  the  educator  will  assume,  unless  he  accidentally  belongs 
to  that  skeptical  experimental  psychology,  that  the  child  would 
like  to  possess  such  an  object.  And  when — this  example  also 
springs  from  reality — a boy  who  in  jumping  over  a brook  has 
broken  his  leg  and  can  only  tediously  limp,  joyfully  jumps 
around  in  his  dream,  the  pedagogue  reaches  the  conclusion 
without  scruples  that  the  dream  realizes  a longed-for  wish. 
Because  a symbol  is  present  in  Joseph’s  dream,  is  the  interpre- 
tation of  his  brothers  and  father  so  artificial  ? 

Indeed  the  most  important  ideas  in  Freud’s  dream  theory 
exist  in  outline  in  the  Bible  without  his  having  known  it.  This 
happens  in  the  interesting  places,  Dan.  v,  25-28.  The  seer 
interprets  the  secret  writing  to  Belshazzar : “Mene,  tekel,  up- 
harsin.”  Verses  26  and  following  say:  “The  interpretation 
is  this : — Mene : ‘ God  hath  numbered  thy  kingdom  and 

finished  it ; tekel : Thou  art  weighed  in  the  balances  and  art 
found  wanting ; upharsin  : Thy  kingdom  is  divided  and  given 
to  the  Medes  and  Persians.’  ” Mene  means  also  “mine”  a 
money  term,  tekel  ( = shekel)  is  about  1/50  mine,  peres,  a 
half -mine,  singular  of  the  plural  form,  p(h)arsin,  Persian. 
The  stem  means  “to  divide.”  One  sees  in  these  terms  a refer- 
ence to  the  powerful  Babylonian  kingdom  (mine),  the  deficient 
Median  rule  (shekel)  which  at  the  time  of  the  dream  lay  in 
Belshazzar’s  hands,  and  refers  to  the  Persian  power  appearing 


DREAMS  IN  THE  BIBLE 


351 


again  more  strongly  but  not  attaining  the  Babylonian  splendor. 
At  all  events,  Daniel  puts  a deeper  meaning  under  the  money 
terms,  he  considers  them  as  overdetermined  and  symbolical. 
The  meaning  which  the  Jewish  seer  derives  from  the  secret 
writing  (cryptography)  contains  also  a thought  most  suitable 
to  the  Jewish  wish -phantasy : the  miserable  Median  rule  shall 
be  broken  but  not  by  a new  world  power  resembling  the  Baby- 
lonian. Beyond  this  meaning,  there  is  the  double  significance 
‘ ‘ Persians-divided,  ” an  allusion  to  the  incapacity  for  life  of 
the  future  heathen  power. 

Therewith,  the  author  of  the  apocalyptical  writings  may  have 
known  something  of  the  fundamental  idea  that  behind  the 
dream-content— here  we  are  dealing  with  a cryptogram  but 
the  mechanism  is  the  same — there  lurks  a quite  different 
(latent)  thought.  He  recognized  the  condensation,  the  plural 
meaning  of  the  dream  idea,  the  wishfulfillment  in  the  mani- 
festation. 

Still  more  important  is  the  passage,  Daniel  v,  12,  where  it 
is  said  of  Daniel:  “Interpreting  of  dreams,  and  shewing  of 
hard  sentences,  and  dissolving  of  doubts,  were  found  in  the 
same  Daniel.  ’ ’ Is  not  the  expression  ‘ * analysis  ’ ’ there  antici- 
pated in  the  plainest  and  most  striking  manner  ? 

I would  like  to  quote  the  sayings  of  some  poets,  for  they, 
according  to  the  confirmative  judgment  of  psychologists,  know 
not  a little  of  the  mind. 

Richard  Wagner  puts  these  words  in  the  mouth  of  Hans 
Sachs: 

“Just  that  is  the  poet’s  work 
That  he  may  note  and  interpret  dreams; 

Believe  me,  man’s  truest  vision 
Is  given  him  in  dream. 

All  poetic  art  and  poetry 

Is  nothing  else  than  true  interpretation  of  dreams.”  * 

Johann  Peter  Uz  (1720-96)  rhymes: 

“Every  one  is  like  his  dreams, 

In  dream  carouses  Anacreon, 

* Richard  Wagner,  Meistersinger.  Reported  by  Robitsek,  Die  Analyse 
in  Egmonts  Traum.  Jahrb.  II,  p.  464. 


352 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


A poet  exults  in  his  rhymes 
And  flits  across  the  Helicon. 

For  you,  monad,  fight  with  conclusions, 

A lover  of  ontology; 

And  every  maiden  dreams  of  kisses 
For  what  is  more  important  for  her?”* 

Tolstoi  has  his  hero,  in  whom  he  probably  depicts  himself, 
testify:  “When  I awake,  I can  well  be  deceived  concerning 
myself,  the  dream  on  the  other  hand,  gives  me  the  correct 
measure  for  the  stage  of  moral  perfection  which  I have  at- 
tained.” t 

Hebbel  says  in  his  distich  “Der  Traum  als  Prophet” : 

“What  shall  befall  you,  how  can  the  dream  tell  you  ? 

What  you  will  do,  that  it  shows  you  already.” 

The  poet  has  his  Judith  narrate  a dream  and  add:  “I 
know  that  one  should  not  despise  such  dreams.  See,  I think 
like  this:  When  a man  lies  asleep,  set  free,  no  longer  held 
together  by  consciousness  of  himself,  then  a feeling  of  the 
future  represses  all  thoughts  and  pictures  of  the  present  and 
the  things  which  shall  come,  flit  as  shadows  through  the  mind, 
preparrng,  warning,  consoling.  Hence  it  comes  about  that 
anything  true  so  seldom  or  never  surprises  us,  that  we  long 
before  confidently  expected  the  good  and  involuntarily  tremble 
before  every  evil  ” $ If  this  sounds  somewhat  unscientific, 
the' diary  explains:  “Our  suspicions,  beliefs,  presentiments, 
etc.,  we  have  until  now  brought  into  use  only  as  proof  of  the 
existence  of  a world  existing  outside  of  us,  still  incomprehensi- 
ble to  us  in  its  reality ; to  me  they  are  more,  they  are  to  me  like 
the  pulse  beats  of  a world  still  slumbering  and  locked  within 
us.”  || 

That  the  poets  know  the  meaning  and  psychological  struc- 
ture of  the  dream  and  attribute  to  it  a great  importance,  is  a 
fact  familiar  to  every  analyst. 

* Zbl.  II,  p.  292. 

t Zbl.  II,  p.  615,  reported  by  Mira  Gincburg. 

t Hebbel,  Judith,  Act  III. 

||  Hebbel,  Tagebticher,  Berlin  1905,  I,  p.  146  (Zbl.  Ill,  p.  168). 


POETS  AND  DREAMS 


353 


Goethe  describes  Egmont’s  dream.*  The  man  condemned 
to  death  longed  for  freedom  and  his  beloved.  Then  the  dream 
begins : Clara  appears  as  freedom.  The  hero  awakens 
strengthened.  Robitsek  sought  to  interpret  with  extraordi- 
nary sharp  sightedness  the  particular  relations  but  did  not  find 
undivided  approval. t 

Bjornson  describes  in  his  novel,  “Arne,”  the  mother  of  the 
hero  in  concise  terms : ‘ ‘ She  was  the  only  child  of  her  parents. 
In  her  eighteenth  year,  she  remained  sitting  too  long  at  a 
dancing  festival/’  She  danced  with  the  violinist.  “In  this 
night,  Margit  dreamed  of  a great  red  cow  which  had  stolen 
into  the  grain  in  the  field.  She  ought  to  drive  her  away  but 
though  she  strove  hard  to  do  so,  could  not  move  from  her  place ; 
the  cow  remained  standing  quietly  and  ate  until  she  became 
round  and  sleek.  ’ ’ $ After  this  dream,  in  which  the  dreamer 
symbolized  her  life-desires  and  herself  in  a cow  and  expressed 
her  most  secret  wish,  we  are  not  surprised  at  the  fact  that  on 
the  next  Sunday,  she  sought  the  violinist  again  and  was  seduced 
by  him.  The  poet  gives  us  only  a little  data  from  a whole  life 
history  but  among  that  a dream.  This  shows  how  great  value 
he  attributed  to  it  as  the  indicator  of  the  mind. 

The  finest  work  of  art  in  relation  to  dream  and  delirium  is 
Jensen’s  “Gradiva,”  on  which  Freud  has  written  a monograph. 
A similar  estimate  of  the  dream,  we  find  among  numerous  poets. 
I mention  only  Jeremia  Gotthelf’s  “Anne  Biibi  Jowager,”  K. 
F.  Meyer’s  “Glocklein,”  Tolstoi’s  “Gebet,”  Wildenbruch’s 
“Hexenlied,”  Andersen’s  “Madehen  mit  den  Schwefelholz- 
ehen,”  Hauptmann’s  “Hannele,”  Ibsen’s  “Klein  Eyolf.” 
Painters  also  compose  this  way:  I mention  only  Moritz  von 
Schwind’s  “Gefangenen”  (Prisoner)  for  whom  the  Brownies 
sawed  through  the  trellis  bars  and  to  whom  a kind  angel 
brought  refreshment. 

The  folk-song  also  knows  the  symbolic  significance  of  the 
dream.  A song  in  ‘ ‘ Des  Knaben  Wunderhorn  ’ ’ runs  as  follows ; 

* Robitsek,  pp.  451-464. 

f Silberer,  Vorlaufer  Freud’seher  Gedanken.  Zbl.  I,  p.  446. 

tBjomsons  ausgew.  Werke  (German  by  Lobedanz),  Vol.  II,  p.  14. 


354 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


“When  I the  whole  day  through 
Have  done  my  tasks 
Still  there  is  more  to  do. 

At  night  when  I should  sleep 

Oft  am  I awakened 

By  a dream  with  awful  fear. 

In  sleep  I see  the  ghost 

Of  my  most  beloved 

With  mighty  bow 

To  which  are  many  arrows  drawn 

Wherewith  he  will  me  lift 

From  out  this  grievous  life. 

Gazing  at  such  grim  specter, 

I cannot  quiet  keep 
And  cry  in  shrieking  tones 

0 boy,  cease  your  anger, 

1 am  going  to  sleep 

You  will  not  need  your  weapons.” 

Here  we  find  the  common  symbol  of  arrow  for  member,  of 
death  for  the  sexual  act.*  The  anxiety  corresponds  to  the 
pent-up  life-desire.  The  dreamer  flees  from  the  dream  into 
reality  as  the  swoon,  the  dream,  the  neurotic  symptom  are  to 
be  understood  as  flight  into  the  unreal  automatism. 

Freud  has  shown  how  intensively  the  acumen  of  psycholo- 
gists from  Aristotle  and  his  monograph  on  dreams  and  dream 
interpretation  down  to  Havelock  Ellis,  Sante  des  Sanctis  and 
Void  has  been  employed  on  our  subject. 

* Representation  by  contrast,  simultaneously  suggesting  disappear- 
ance of  the  sense.  The  love-death  is  typical : E.  T.  A.  Hoffman  has  his 
hero  say:  “You  believe  too  that  the  highest  beatitude  of  love,  the  ful- 
fillment of  the  mystery,  is  consummated  in  death.”  (Elixiere  des  Teu- 
fels,  Berlin-Leipzig  1908,  p.  157) ; Novalis  says:  “In  death,  love  is  the 
sweetest;  for  the  loving  one,  death  is  a bridal  night,  a secret  of  sweet 
mysteries”  Heilborn,  Novalis,  p.  160).  He  speaks  of  a “mystical  mar- 
riage of  pleasure  and  death”  {p.  116).  Heilborn  rightly  adds  that  the 
pairing  of  ideas  of  death  and  sensuality  is  the  way  of  all  mystics  (p. 
104).  Compare  Isolde’s  Liebestod  by  Wagner  (see  above  p.  320), 
Kleist’s  death,  etc. 


THE  DREAM-WORK 


355 


(b)  the  dream  work 

The  plain  meaning  of  many  dreams  lies  right  at  hand. 
When,  in  Ibsen’s  “Klein  Eyolf,”  the  hero  sees  his  lame  child 
who  was  drowned,  healthy  and  jumping  around  in  the  dream, 
this  is  comprehensible  to  us.  Why,  however,  are  other  dreams 
senseless  or  trifling? 

For  answer  to  this  question,  we  turn  to  the  psychoanalytic 
investigation.  Let  us  take  a few  simple  examples : 

A teacher  aged  thirty-five,  sees  himself  going  through  bad 
weather  to  a school-house  from  which  many  young  people  are 
coming.  Beside  the  house  stand  two  furniture  vans  of  which 
one  is  already  loaded  and  ready  to  depart.  Through  the  door, 
one  sees  a carefully  equipped  drawing-board.  The  other  wagon 
is  not  yet  entirely  loaded.  On  account  of  the  rain,  many 
objects  were  placed  under  the  wagon.  The  cover  of  the  vehicle 
was  pushed  far  up  in  perpendicular  slots.  A friend  stands 
alongside. 

[Bad  weather.]  “We  have  had  it  for  some  days.  I wanted 
to  start  on  a mountain  trip  but  felt  indisposed  and  feared  to 
be  held  back  by  rain.” 

[School-house.]  “On  the  trip,  a pupil  from  this  one  and  a 
teacher  from  another  school-house  were  to  participate,  namely, 
my  friend  F.” 

[Furniture  van.]  “On  the  day  before  the  dream,  my 
mother  spoke  of  moving.” 

[The  loaded  wagon.]  “My  pupil  has  already  gone  to  the 
mountain,  my  friend  is  waiting  for  me  and  I am  not  yet  ready.” 

[Drawing-board.]  “I  wrote  first  ‘Reisbrett’  (for  Reiss- 
brett)  = guideboard.” 

[The  other  wagon.]  “The  cover  shoved  up  says:  ‘delayed 
is  not  prevented.’  This  applies  to  my  trip.” 

[The  objects  under  the  wagon.]  ‘ ‘ They  were  protected  from 
the  rain.  Waiting  hurts  nothing.” 

Now  the  superficial  interpretation  of  the  dream  is  plain. 
The  sleeper  is  to  be  consoled  for  his  ill  humor.  Behind  the 
dream  ideas,  the  so-called  manifest  content,  lurk  the  hidden 


356 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


motives,  the  latent  dream  thoughts.  The  complete  work  of 
transposing  the  latter  into  the  former  is  known  to  us,  the  so- 
called  dream  work.  We  find  the  condensation  (mountain  trip, 
moving  of  the  mother,  in  the  figure  of  the  furniture  vans),  the 
symbolical  representation,  here  accomplished  by  a word-bridge 
(Reissbrett — Reisbrett,  lifted  cover  [aufgeschoben] — delayed 
is  not  prevented  (aufgehoben).  One  motive  for  the  dream  al- 
ways belongs  to  an  experience  of  the  previous  day  or  next  pre- 
ceding day.  Here  it  is  a very  insignificant  one : a conversation. 
But  it  affords  material  for  effective  symbolization.  The  dream 
is  without  affect  (lack  of  emotion).  Not  all  the  ways  of  mani- 
festation found  by  us  were  utilized.  The  regression  into  the 
infantile  may  still  be  added : The  dreamer  as  a child  experi- 
enced many  movings  which  went  off  well  in  spite  of  bad 
weather.  Further,  a deeper  meaning  may  be  suspected : F.  is 
married  to  a youthful  girl  friend  of  the  dreamer,  now  grown 
handsome  and  strong  and  was  envied  by  the  latter,  since  his 
wife  is  thin.  On  the  other  hand,  F.  has  no  children  to  expect 
while  the  dreamer,  to  his  gratification,  sees  himself  in  this  posi- 
tion (objects  under  the  wagon).  Finally,  the  peculiar  furni- 
ture wagon  is  a functional  symbol : The  dreamer  consoles  him- 
self that  his  unsatisfied  longing  for  love  will  still  be  gratified. 
But  so  he  has  waited  for  years  and  does  nothing  to  reach  a better 
situation  with  his  love,  to  attain  a nobler  relation  to  his  wife. 
The  over-interpretation  was  revealed  only  after  the  first  inter- 
pretation, from  associations  collected. 

A pastor  friend  of  mine  dreamed  that  he  was  amid  a howling 
mob  of  negroes  by  whom  Europeans  were  killed.  A huge  fat 
negro  seized  him  and  lifted  him  on  high  in  order  to  dash  him 
to  the  ground.  N.,  however,  grasped  a branch  of  a tree  and 
felt  secure.  Some  men  dragged  a piano  into  the  dining-room. 
Suddenly  their  leader  braced  himself  in  a certain  corner  with 
the  assertion  that  if  the  floor  should  fall  down  now,  the  floor 
in  this  corner  would  hold  securely. 

Both  dreams  are  to  their  creators,  senseless  and  without  con- 
nection to  their  conscious  mental  lives. 

[Mob  of  negroes.]  “Three  days  before  the  dream,  I held  a 


ANALYSIS  OF  DREAM 


357 


lecture  on  the  mission  in  Africa  and  rejoiced  that  Christian  cul- 
ture had  overcome  cannibalism.” 

[The  negro  giant.]  “Black,  Pastor  Black,  Pastor  Z.,  Pastor 
C.  The  latter  is  large,  dark  skinned  and  very  robust.”  (I 
might  have  named  these  persons  for  associations  but  pro- 
ceeded) : 

[The  branch.]  “ On  a sheet  of  pictures,  an  ape  was  pursued 
by  a lion,  but  at  the  last  moment,  jumped  on  a branch,  mocked 
and  maltreated  the  lion.  In  the  dream,  I swung  myself  trium- 
phantly on  high.” 

[The  piano.]  “My  seemingly  heavy,  black  piano  was  really 
transported  into  the  dining-room  before  the  dream.  The  leader 
in  the  dream  is  the  father  of  the  real  baggage-man.  I spoke 
with  both  men  on  the  day  before  the  dream.  ’ ’ 

[The  corner  of  the  room.]  “The  favorite  plan  of  my  wife 
who  assists  the  mission  very  cleverly. 

“And  now  I understand  the  occasion  of  the  dream.  Pastor 
C.,  my  neighbor,  preached  a sermon  which  was  rather  cool  and 
detrimental  to  the  mission.  He  is  a large  man,  according  to  his 
own  statement,  inclined  to  corpulency,  clothed  in  black  and 
having  a dark  beard.  Plainly,  he  is  the  negro.  I felt  myself 
attacked  by  his  sermon  since  I was  openly  identified  with  the 
mission.  A friend  of  the  mission  said  to  me:  ‘Now  I shall 
give  Pastor  C.  nothing  more  for  the  works  conducted  by  him.  ’ 
I thought:  ‘Pastor  C.  was  a duffer  to  injure  himself  so.’  Or 
no,  I did  not  think  so,  I wished  hijm  only  the  result  of  his 
imprudent  conduct  but  in  the  dream  I made  a duffer  out  of  the 
pastor.  Out  of  me  whom  he  treated  slightingly  in  the  sermon, 
I made  an  ape  who  first  feared  the  lion  but  then  despised  him, 
overcame  him  and  raised  myself  high  above  him.” 

The  second  dream  seems  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  first 
but  confirms  the  unbreakable  rule  that  all  dreams  of  a night 
(even  when  they  are  interrupted  by  awakening)  form  one 
homogeneous  whole.* 

The  piano  is  heavy  and  black  like  the  negro  and  threatens 
the  dreamer  like  Pastor  C.  in  the  preceding  dream.  The 

* Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  261. 


358 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


dreamer  saves  himself  in  the  favorite  plan  of  his  wife  who  per- 
forms such  excellent  service  for  the  mission.  He  identifies  him- 
self with  the  man  who  managed  the  moving  of  the  piano  and 
thus  climbs  to  leader  of  his  colleague.  Thereby,  he  makes  him 
self  father  of  the  real  baggage-man  because  he  will  be  something 
better,  the  spiritual  father.  Thus  the  first  dream  says : 
Pastor  C.  cannot  hurt  the  mission  and  me,  he  injures  only  him- 
self and  I triumph.  The  second  dream  adds:  My  wife  also 
helps  me  to  gain  this  victory. 

Both  dreams  depict  also  a transposition  of  inclination : The 
dreamer  was  previously  very  cordial  to  his  colleague,  to  his 
wife,  less  so.  Now  the  relationships  are  reversed,  at  least  an 
attempt  is  made  in  this  direction. 

It  has  been  said  that  dreams  are  unimportant,  mere  repeti- 
tions of  daily  happenings.  Both  statements  are  incorrect. 
There  are  no  mere  reproduction-dreams.  The  unconscious  is 
much  too  autistic  to  devote  itself  to  minutiae.  Where  it  seems 
different,  the  dream  has  deeper  meaning.  As  proof  for  this, 
we  may  offer  two  examples  from  a number  of  observations : 

A gentleman  of  about  thirty-eight  years  disputed  the  observa- 
tion that  a repressed  wish  is  fulfilled  in  every  dream  and  re- 
ferred to  a dream  which  merely  repeated  quite  closely  an  ex- 
perience of  that  day : “I  was  going  with  my  band  of  pupils  to 
the  station  but  the  train  had  just  gone.  Later  I turned  back 
and  mounted  the  train.” 

[I  know  absolutely  nothing  of  the  affairs  of  your  life  except 
that  you  are  married.  Were  you  something  of  an  elderly 
“young  sport”  when  you  had  the  dream?]  “That  is  so.” 
[And  were  you  afraid  that  you  might  already  have  lost  the 
power  for  connection?]  “I  remember  perfectly  that  this 
thought  often  troubled  me  at  that  time.  How  do  you  know 
this?” 

I will  disclose  to  the  reader  that  “station”  is  an  exceedingly 
frequent  sexual  symbol.  At  the  station  are  the  trains  which 
run  in  and  out.  The  literature  shows  a mass  of  proof  for  this, 
in  itself,  surprising  symbolism,  which  I myself  have  found  sub- 


ANALYSIS  OF  DREAM 


359 


stantiated  times  without  number.  Thus  the  dreamer  consoled 
himself  by  still  coming  to  marriage. 

The  reproduction-dream  of  a student  ran  as  follows:  “I 
was  sitting  on  the  stage  of  an  auditorium.  This  has  really  hap- 
pened in  the  afternoon.  Only  in  the  dream,  I saw  some  gen- 
tlemen sitting  on  the  benches.  ’ ’ 

[Plainly  it  is  your  dearest  wish  to  become  a university  pro- 
fessor.] “That  is  a fact;  it  is  the  goal  toward  which  I strive 
with  all  my  power." 

As  with  these  two  dreams,  so  countless  others  may  be  inter- 
preted by  the  experienced  analyst  without  more  facts.  There- 
fore, no  one  should  tell  his  dreams  in  society.  Inexperienced 
people  disclose  their  innermost  and  most  delicate  secrets.  Still 
in  the  beginning,  one  should  not  devote  one’s  self  to  guessing 
but  seek  carefully,  according  to  the  fundamental  rules  of 
analysis,  the  material  for  interpretation. 

Finally,  a last  example  which  may  show  how  in  the  dream, 
without  exception,  an  important  affair  of  the  dreamer’s  is 
treated  even  where  not  the  slightest  trace  of  it  is  to  be  detected 
in  the  content.  The  dream  is,  as  a matter  of  fact,  always  ego- 
centric.* 

A theological  student  in  love  dreamed:  “The  Duchess  of 
Angouleme  is  expected."  Who  this  lady  is,  he  cannot  tell. 
[Angouleme.]  “Angleterre”  (England).  “There,  my  be- 
loved is  staying.  ‘Angoul’  reminds  me  of'angelus,  angel. 
Such,  I consider  the  beloved.  Angoul  agrees  also  with  angulus, 
angle.  Yesterday,  I sang  the  whole  day : ‘ She  is  my  thought 
by  day  and  night  and  dwells  by  the  corner  of  the  gate.  ’ This 
student  song  fits  in,  for  my  beloved  lives  beside  a gate  arch." 

[Duchess.]  “The  duchess  from  Ekkehard  who  loved  a 
theologian  without  winning  him.  In  the  legend  which  I read 
when  a child,  there  were  duchesses  whom  I naturally  would 

*Freud  (Traumdeutung,  p.  254)  calls  it,  as  we  have  heard,  egoistic. 
Often,  however,  real  moral  performances  which  demand  sacrifice,  are 
the  content  of  the  dream.  Probably  Freud  understands  egoistic  as  we 
conceive  of  egocentric. 


360 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


have  liked  to  possess.  I was  long  afraid  of  not  winning  my 
lady  friend.” 

[Angouleme.]  “ ’Leme  is  short  for:  ‘Elle  aime.’  She 
really  loves  me  too.  ’ ’ 

[Is  expected.]  “I  may  hope  that  of  the  girl.  Before  the 
dream,  she  invited  me  to  make  a visit.  ’ ' 

[The  Duchess  of  Angouleme.]  “I  have  no  idea  whether 
such  a person  ever  lived.  ” (The  conversation  lexicon  gave  the 
information  that  she  was  a daughter  of  Louis  XYI,  saw  the 
beheading  of  her  parents,  and  later,  thanks  to  her  preference 
for  the  side  of  a capable  man,  became  happy.)  “Now  I re- 
member that  as  a child,  I read  of  the  history  of  the  unfortu- 
nate girl  and  that  I thought  I would  certainly  have  married 
her.  For  the  rest,  the  parents  of  my  friend  are  somewhat 
estranged  from  their  daughter  because  they  do  not  understand 
her  mental  peculiarities.  I have  hoped  to  be  able  to  provide 
a substitute  for  her  parents.” 

Here  we  see  the  regression  to  the  infantile,  the  hypermnestic 
performance  of  the  dream.  The  dream  here  realizes  a real 
childhood  wish  which  Freud  asserts  of  all  dreams  * when  he 
says : ‘ ‘ The  dream  is  the  representative  of  the  infantile  scene 

changed  by  transference  to  recent  material.  ’ ’ 

It  will  be  easy  for  the  reader,  by  analysis  of  his  own  dreams 
or  those  of  others,  to  find  the  other  mechanisms  of  the  manifes- 
tation in  the  dream  work.  That  which  distinguishes  the  dream 
is  the  dramatization,  the  arrangement  of  the  material  in  a pic- 
torial connection  which  is  only  interrupted  when  nothing  more 
can  be  done  with  the  material  at  hand  because  the  latent  idea 
would  be  betrayed  or  because  the  thing  is  too  painful  and  a 
solution  of  the  conflict  is  not  found  in  the  dream.  In  such 
cases,  there  occurs  in  normal  individuals,  a flight  into  reality, 
an  awakening,  which  is  then  often  accompanied  by  the  thought : 
“Thank  God  it  was  only  a dream!”  This  consciousness  can 
also  appear  in  the  dream  itself  in  order  to  quiet  the  dreamer,  t 

Since  the  dream  condenses,  symbolizes,  represents  by  oppo- 

* Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  365  f. 

f Stekel,  Beitrage  zur  Traumdeutung.  Jakrb.  I,  pp.  459-466. 


DREAM  INTERPRETATION 


361 


site  and  sublimates,  the  meaning  of  the  latent  content  is  not 
exhausted  by  a single  interpretation.  One  can  never  say  that 
one  has  found  the  deepest  meaning.*  Many  dreams  cannot  in 
general  be  interpreted.!  “The  complete  interpretation  of 
such  a dream  coincides  with  the  analysis. ” + “In  the  inter- 
pretation of  every  dream  element,”  according  to  Freud,  “it  is 
doubtful  whether 

(a)  it  is  to  be  understood  in  positive  or  negative  sense  (con- 
trast relation) 

(b)  it  is  to  be  interpreted  historically  (as  reminiscence), 

(c)  symbolically,  or 

(d)  its  estimation  should  proceed  from  the  wording.”  || 
For  reassurance,  the  author  adds:  “In  spite  of  this  possi- 
bility of  many  interpretations,  one  may  say  that  the  representa- 
tion of  the  dream-work,  which  is  indeed  intended  not  to  be 
understood,  offers  no  greater  difficulties  to  the  translator  than 
the  writers  of  the  old  hieroglyphics  gave  their  readers.  ’ ’ 

Stekel  asserts  on  the  contrary  that  as  a result  of  the  “bipo- 
larity of  all  psychic  phenomena,”  each  of  the  two  possible  in- 
terpretations which  every  dream  fragment  may  claim,  may  be 
correct.!}  “Everything  in  the  dream  is  bipolar.  To  the  mas- 
culine impulses  there  correspond  feminine,  to  the  proud, 
humble,  to  the  good,  bad,  etc.”  Certainly  the  ambivalence 
extends  very  far  but  that  it  covers  everything,  I do  not  see. 

"We  must  still  say  something  regarding  the  origin  and  later 
fate  of  the  dream.  Great  importance  has  been  atrributed  to 
bodily  stimuli  by  the  non-analytie  side.  Analysis,  however, 
shows  that  every  physical  irritation  passes  over  into  the  mani- 
fest dream  content  only  when  it  affords  the  unconscious  oppor- 
tunity for  elaboration. 

A girl  dreams  of  a band  which  she  is  following  on  X Street. 
A moment  later,  she  awakens  to  the  sound  of  a passing  bugle 
corps. 

* Freud,  Traumdeutung,  pp.  108,  223,  350. 

t Same,  p.  350. 

t Freud,  Die  Handhabung  d.  Traumdeutung  i.  d.  Psa.  Zbl.  II,  p.  II. 

||  Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  267. 

f Stekel,  Die  Sprache  des  Traumes,  p.  535. 


362 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


[X  Street.]  ‘ ‘ There,  many  elegant  but  bad  girls  parade.  I 
am  glad  that  I am  not  like  one  of  them.  When  a child,  I liked 
to  follow  bands.” 

The  girl  is  in  moral  distress.  She  is  fond  of  dress  and  pas- 
sionately erotic  in  high  degree.  She  envies  elegant  prostitutes 
but  represses  the  unallowed  desire.  In  the  dream,  she  sees 
herself  on  X Street  wherewith  the  wish  to  be  a prostitute  comes 
to  account.  But  she  sees  herself  as  innocent  child  running  be- 
hind a band  so  that  her  conscience  is  satisfied.  The  dream  thus 
reveals  itself,  as  always,  as  a compromise  between  two  mutually 
contending  repressing,  instinctive  impulses. 

A gentleman  dreams  at  the  moment  of  awakening  that  his 
wife  is  borne  into  the  room  dead,  whereupon  he  feels  great 
anxiety. 

The  door  was  opened  just  at  this  minute.  Already  the 
crash  caused  by  this  had  often  frightened  him  but  never  in 
such  degree.  His  wife  entered.  He  was  considering  dissolv- 
ing his  marriage  to  the  unloved  one.  Hence  the  death-wish 
which  came  to  expression  in  the  dream. 

A normal  individual  dreamed  very  clearly  in  the  summer 
resort  on  awakening  that  someone  said  in  front  of  his  window : 
‘‘It  is  not  quite  six  o’clock.”  He  convinced  himself,  however, 
that  some  Italians  were  speaking  outside  who  could  not  speak 
a word  of  German.  He  had  gone  to  sleep  with  the  resolution  to 
get  up  at  six  o ’clock  in  order  to  go  mountain  climbing  and  had 
been  afraid  of  oversleeping.  One  might  ask  whether  this  was 
a hypnotic-like  dream  or  a hypnoid  illusion. 

Such  utilization  of  unexpected  external  irritations  as  also 
cryptography  and  cryptolalia,  convinced  me  that  these  manifes- 
tations are  formed  with  great  rapidity. 

To  the  sources  of  the  dream,  suggestion  is  also  to  be  reckoned. 
Silberer’s  hypnagogic  dream  investigation  (page  241)  and 
Schrotter’s  artificial  dreams  in  hypnotized  persons  (Zentral- 
blatt  II,  page  638  ff ) afforded  evidence  that  ordinary  dreams 
are  also  dependent  on  suggestive  influences.  As  a matter  of 
fact,  the  variety  of  dreams  which  appear  during  the  analysis 
with  different  analysts  betrays  very  plainly  the  effect  of  sug- 


CONSCIOUS  DISTORTION  OF  DREAM  363 


gestion.  One  does  well,  therefore,  to  support  the  theory  of 
interpretation  mostly  on  first  dreams  or  manifestations  previ- 
ous to  the  analysis. 

Surprising  and  to  me  inexplicable  is  the  fact  that  direct 
speech  in  the  dream,  as  Freud  found,  goes  back  to  such  in 
reality.*  I have  very  often  found  this  statement  confirmed. 

It  was  urged  against  dream  analysis  that  the  dream  was  spun 
out  and  distorted  after  awakening  so  that  an  interpretation  of 
the  real  dream  would  be  impossible.  In  answer  to  this,  it  may 
be  remarked  that  this  subsequent  dream  elaboration  as  well  as 
the  forgetting  of  bits  of  dreams,  is  caused  by  the  same  forces 
which  occasioned  the  dream.  One  keeps  the  dream  so  long  as 
the  complexes  underlying  it  can  invest  themselves  in  this  ma- 
terial. It  does  not  matter  at  all  if  the  dreamer  phantasies  in 
addition  or  lies  somewhat  about  it.  One  may  quietly  admit 
such  phantasies.  If  anyone  dreams  of  someone  present  in  the 
dream  without  seeing  a single  characteristic  of  him,  then  one 
simply  says:  “Imagine  what  this  dream  figure  was  like.” 
These  subsequent  associations  are  as  important  for  the  ex- 
planation as  the  matter  really  dreamed.  As  a rule,  they  af- 
ford the  key  to  the  whole  situation:  they  help  to  find  the 
thoughts  about  which  the  disparate,  diverging  dream  frag- 
ments group  themselves  and  which  they  illustrate.  (Herein 
lies  the  criterion  for  the  correctness  of  the  interpretation.) 
They  lead  to  the  unconscious  which  manifests  itself  in  the 
dream. 

Of  great  importance  is  Freud’s  observation  on  the  after- 
effect of  the  dream:  “When,  after  a dream,  the  belief  in  the 
reality  of  the  dream  pictures  persists  uncommonly  long,  so 
that  the  dreamer  cannot  free  himself  from  the  dream,  this  is 
not  an  error  of  judgment  occasioned  by  the  vividness  of  the 
dream  pictures  but  is  a psychic  act  in  itself,  an  assurance  which 
relates  to  the  dream  content,  that  something  therein  is  really 
as  it  was  dreamed  and  one  is  right  in  believing  this  assur- 
ance.” f 

* Freud,  Traumdeutung,  pp.  134,  241,  247,  278. 

f Freud,  Gradiva,  p.  48. 


364 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


I gave  an  example  of  this  in  my  first  psychoanalytic  publica- 
tion, “Wahnvorstellung  und  Schiilerselbstmord ” * (Delu- 
sion and  Suicide  in  Pupils).  A fifteen  year  old  boy  dreamed 
that  he  had  committed  incest  with  his  sister.  No  matter  how 
vigorously  he  denied  the  accusation  as  impossible,  he  could  not 
free  himself  from  the  feeling  that  the  reality  agreed  with  the 
dream.  He  fell  into  anxiety  and  doubt  until,  almost  ready  for 
suicide,  he  asked  his  sister  on  conscience  whether  he  had  com- 
mitted incest  with  her.  The  indignant  girl  asserted  that  not 
the  slightest  immorality  had  occurred,  whereupon  tranquillity, 
even  though  not  complete,  appeared.  Yet,  three  years  after 
the  dream,  the  memory  of  it  brings  tears. 

Asked  to  fix  his  attention  on  the  -dream,  the  youth  imme- 
diately remembered  that  his  sister  had  enlightened  him  re- 
garding sexual  matters  and  spoke  of  incest  between  brothers 
and  sisters  which  excited  the  brother  sexually.  The  girl  spoke 
repeatedly  of  similar  things  which  every  time  occasioned  volup- 
tuous sensations  in  the  boy.  His  phantasies  were  overempha- 
sized. So  far,  a real  occurrence  corresponded  to  the  dream, 
which  may  have  been  preceded  by  others  in  the  early  years  of 
childhood. 

(c)  THE  LOGIC  OF  THE  DREAM 

Since  the  dream  dispenses  with  conscious  apperception, 
strict  logical  thinking  is  in  great  part  denied  it.  It  possesses 
guiding  tendencies,  otherwise  the  artistic  dream  structure 
would  not  come  into  existence,  but  these  are  not  conscious,  how- 
ever. 

What  we  perceive  as  logical  functions  in  the  dream,  fall  into 
the  following  groups : 

1.  Quite  simple  pertinent  performances,  judgments,  se- 
quences, comparisons,  computations,  etc. 

2.  False  logical  activities.  The  simplest  conclusions  are 
drawn  incorrectly.  Computations  which  a child  could  do,  have 
a wrong  answer.  Often  a preceding  correct  judgment  is  up- 

* Schweiz.  Blatter  f.  Schulgesundheitspflege  1909,  No.  1. 


LOGIC  IN  DREAM 


265 


set  by  a subsequent  false  one  and  the  latter  finds  firm  belief  in 
the  dream. 

3.  From  the  waking  life,  logical  performances  are  taken 
over  in  direct  speech  or  without  such.  Conclusions  in  the 
dream  have  always  arisen  in  the  wraking  life.* 

4.  Logical  judgment  concerning  the  dream,  for  instance, 
criticism : This  is  nonsense,  or : this  is  impossible,  or : this  is 
merely  a dream.  These  reflections,  which  often  appear  upon 
awakening  and  conduce  to  new  sleep,  signify  a flight  into  the 
form  of  the  waking  life  and  accomplish  the  purpose  of  protect- 
ing the  sleeper. 

Highly  logical  intellectual  performances,  as  calculations, 
essays,  poems,  which  were  executed  in  sleep  are  not  genuine 
dreams. 

In  order  to  manifest  the  finer  logical  relations  of  the  latent 
dream  thoughts,  the  dreamer  makes  use  of  special  means  which 
often  serve  their  purpose  with  astonishing  cleverness  in  witty 
or  shrewd  allusions.  We  have  become  familiar  already  with 
condensation,  transposition  of  emotion,  symbolic  representa- 
tion, representation  by  opposite  and  other  mechanisms. 

AVe  may  now  describe  how  the  logical  relations  come  to  ex- 
pression. As  pictography,  for  example  the  Indian  pictorial 
writing,  places  the  members  of  the  logical  chain  side  by  side 
without  visible  connection,  so  does  the  dream.  It  can  repre- 
sent causality  only  by  spacial  or  temporal  juxtaposition. 
Temporally,  by  one  dream  fragment’s  containing  the  founda- 
tion of  another.!  Spacially,  by  placing  cause  and  effect  side 
by  side  or  uniting  them  in  a composite  figure  or  by  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  cause  passing  over  into  that  of  the  effect  t An 
element  of  the  composite  figure  contains  the  cause  of  the 
hallucination  of  the  devil  on  page  38.  We  met  a good  example 
also  on  page  194  in  the  dream  of  the  courtyard  of  the  barracks 
and  the  polyclinic. 

* Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  301. 

f Same,  p.  24S. 

t Same,  p.  249. 


366 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Two  dream  fragments  may  have  various  relations  to  each 
other.  Perhaps  they  are  joined  in  the  latent  content  by: 
either — or,  perhaps  by : partly — partly,  perhaps  by : as — so. 

Throughout,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  dream  serves 
autistic  interests,  not  real  ones.  But  regard  for  phantastic 
gain  of  pleasure  or  the  wish  to  carry  out  a repressed  impulse  in 
the  dream  can  also  take  into  account  causal  relationships  when 
such  exist  in  the  repressed  motives. 

Hallucinations,  we  have  already  recognized  in  sufficient  num- 
bers. They  constantly  presuppose  mental  conflicts  since  they 
persist  in  getting  their  own  reality. 

The  waking  phantasies  are  of  high  value  in  judging  the 
mental  condition.  During  a single  dream,  only  a momentary 
situation  is  represented,  and  in  the  morning  an  entirely  new 
disposition  of  libido  may  appear ; the  day  dreams  are  marked  by 
strong  tendency  to  persist.  A single  phantasy  may  be  elabor- 
ated for  months  or  years  with  immense  expenditure  of  affect, 
until  finally  a whole  romance  is  spun  out,  while  the  stereotyped 
dream  occurs  less  frequently  and  does  not  undergo  any  such 
extended  elaboration.  Such  day  dreams,  which  regularly  point 
to  lack  of  gratification  in  life  and  should  be  held  innocent  of  the 
deficiency  in  reality,  are  constantly  invested  with  much  affect. 
As  the  performance  of  waking  life,  the  day-dream  is  less  distant 
from  the  domain  of  possibility  than  the  sleeping  dream,  so  is  it 
less  bizarre  and  absurd.  Hence  it  is  often  more  difficult  to 
interpret. 

A girl  of  sixteen  years  was  haunted  for  years  by  the  follow- 
ing phantasy:  She  is  the  head  of  an  oppressed  Huguenot 
family.  She  is  imprisoned  and  must  renounce  her  faith.  She 
stands  heroically  for  her  faith  and  dies  a martyr. 

It  is  striking  that  she  dreams  of  herself  as  spiritual  leader. 
The  termination  betrays  the  melancholia  which  rules  her  wak- 
ing life  also.  To  imprisonment,  she  associated  father,  a higher 
official  who  had  been  imprisoned  for  fraud  and  had  shot  him- 
self when  the  child  was  nine  years  old.  The  spiritual  role 
meant  an  identification  with  the'grandfather  who  was  a pastor 


COMPENSATION  IN  DREAM 


367 


but  had  gone  over  to  a life  insurance  company,  thus  in  the  eyes 
of  the  child,  had  been  unfaithful  to  his  office.  Further,  the 
little  one  found  a passionately  adored  father-substitute  in  her 
pastor.  Thus  in  the  waking  phantasy,  the  daughter  elaborated 
her  great  childish  grief  by  expiating  in  her  heroic  deed  the 
misdeeds  of  her  father  and  grandfather.  The  obsessing  phan- 
tasy ceased  from  the  moment  of  the  analysis. 

The  youth  described  on  page  265,  who  was  pathologically  shy 
of  girls,  frequently  produced  the  following  phantasy  which  I 
found  in  his  letter : ‘ ‘ The  Swiss  are  in  a bloody  war  with  a 
neighboring  State.  I immediately  enlist  as  volunteer  while 
my  comrades  stay  at  home.  I overcome  fatigue  and  become 
ensign  by  brilliant  execution  of  orders.  In  the  final  great 
decisive  battle,  I bear  the  colors  in  the  foremost  ranks  and 
strike  down  every  one  with  my  right  arm.  We  are  victorious. 
In  the  parade  in  Zurich,  I march  ahead  with  the  tattered, 
blood-stained  colors.  Nora  gives  me  flowers ; no  one  sees  them, 
I conceal  them  under  my  shirt  on  my  breast.  Someone  comes 
upon  me.  I strike  off  this  person’s  head  with  my  sabre.  It 
resembled  yours.  In  the  name  of  the  soldiers,  I make  a speech 
to  the  colonel,  we  give  him  three  cheers.  I come  home.  No 
one  there.  Nora  invites  me  in.  I tell  her  family  of  my  ex- 
periences. Later,  I go  walking  with  Nora  and  give  her  a gold 
cross  which  I received  as  decoration.  We  have  remained 
mutually  true  to  each  other.  We  are  married  and  live  happily. 
I never  go  to  the  tavern.  We  always  go  together.  We  have  a 
daughter  who  resembles  Nora  in  looks  but  me  in  character.” 

The  resistances  were  great.  The  youth  wished  to  become 
a professional  officer.  The  sabre  with  which  he  can  strike 
a man  down  impresses  him  tremendously  (counter-reaction 
against  repression  of  masturbation).  [Nora  gives  flowers.] 

‘ ‘In  C Street.  There  I saw  beautiful  girls.  One  wore  a beau- 
tiful dress  which  was  torn  below,  however.  ’ ’ 

[Someone  comes  upon  me.]  “This  I phantasied  in  addition 
only  while  writing  it  down.  The  man  came  from  behind.” 

[ The  man. ] ' ‘ ‘It  is  you.  The  parents  are  mistrustful  of  you 


368 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


and  assert  that  you  only  wish  to  pump  me.*  They  were  like- 
wise beheaded  on  C Street  near  the  former  place.  ’ ’ 

[The  place.]  “My  teacher  H.  Sometimes  I can  endure 
him,  sometimes,  not.  Once  we  were  coming  from  the  railway. 
In  the  crowd,  mother  and  I lost  father.  At  the  Place  of 
Execution,  father  came  upon  us.  Mother  was  weeping  about 
him  and  cried  that  she  would  go  the  next  day  to  a lawyer  for  a 
divorce.  The  people  looked  after  us.  I was  also  very  angry 
at  father.  This  happened  many  years  ago.”  [The  gold 
cross.]  “Tannera  tells  of  the  iron  cross;  the  golden  is  still 
more  beautiful.” 

The  wishes  are  plain  enough.  The  bashful  youth  becomes 
conquering  hero  and  lover,  exemplary  husband  and  father. 
He  identifies  me  in  his  negative  transference  with  his  father 
and  kills  me  as  his  perfidious  enemy.  The  beloved,  avoided  in 
reality,  becomes  his  own  when  he  has  killed  the  father-complex 
within  him.  In  this,  the  dream  is  entirely  right;  it  came  to 
fulfillment  later  to  the  letter. 

7.  Cryptolalia  and  Cryptography 

When  I investigated  the  previously  undeciphered  produc- 
tions of  religious  secret  speech  and  automatic  writing,  I found 
that  every  one,  though  he  made  senseless  syllables,  flourishes 
and  other  signs,  every  time  gave  masked  expression  to  the  com- 
plexes ruling  within  him.  Where  dreams  were  denied,  I often 
made  use  with  the  best  results  of  this  simple  measure,  to  con- 
sider this  refusal  every  time  as  the  association  in  order  to  con- 
tinue the  analysis.  The  fact  that  in  this  way  a forgotten  dream 
was  often  again  brought  to  mind,  betrays  the  fact  that  the  same 
forces  were  acting  in  both  manifestations. 

(a)  cryptolalia 

An  acquaintance,  forty  years  of  age,  upon  my  request,  wrote 
meaningless  words,  namely : ‘ ‘ Parastintunga  nodaratschiwu.  ’ ’ 

* This  was  so.  Especially  did  the  severely  hysterical  mother  speak 
badly  of  me,  since  I had  recommended  her  to  a lady  physician  skilled  in 
psychoanalysis,  whom  she  did  not  visit.  The  hostility  of  the  parents 


CRYPTOLALIA 


369 


[Parast.]  Palace  in  Togo.  I heard  it  related  this  after- 
noon of  a Togo  chief  who  built  huts  for  his  two  wives  north  and 
south  from  his  village.  I also  saw  the  picture  of  these  women. 
One  was  not  bad.  [Parast.]  Parasite.  When  a boy,  I read 
Schiller’s  drama  which  bears  this  title.  Here  is  found  this 
verse:  * “There  is  room  in  the  tiniest  hut  for  a pair  who  are 
happy  in  love.”  Thus  again  a hut  like  that  of  the  pleasing 
negress.  When  I read  Schiller’s  verse,  I already  knew  it,  for  a 
young  admirer  of  my  early  widowed  mother  had  recited  it. 
When  I was  one  to  four  years  old  and  seven  to  eight,  I dwelt 
with  my  mother  in  a tiny  house  (infantile  root). 

[tunga.]  Tonkin.  Here  too  dwell  pretty  black  women  of 
small  stature  but  good  looks,  attractive.  To-day  I met  a simi- 
lar looking  girl  who  gave  me  the  impression  of  a graceful,  dark 
little  witch,  but  of  loose  morals.  She  went  into  a questionable 
house.  And  now  I recall  a young  lady  who  in  my  emotional 
life  took  precedence  of  my  wife  who  unfortunately  is  unlovable. 
I could  never  make  up  my  mind,  however,  to  be  untrue  to  my 
wife,  no.  matter  how  much  I was  attracted  to  the  kindly,  dark 
little  friend  who  was  entirely  respectable.  The  latter  is  highly 
attractive  and  passionate,  her  ethical  compulsion  still  not  re- 
moved. Now  it  occurs  to  me  that  “Parastin”  exactly  agrees 
with  Greek  “ napeo-riv, ” “he,  she  or  it  is  there”  except  that  e 
is  replaced  by  a (on  account  of  “Palast”  and  “Parasit”). 
The  situation  is  really  this,  that  I wish  a little  hut  for  a loving 
pair.  I imagine  this  hut  as  real. 

[tunga.]  Dschungeln.  I wished  to  give  my  wife  the  “ Jun- 
glebook”  by  Kipling.  [Junglebook.]  A funny  episode — 
hold ! Now  I notice  that  my  wife  behaves  like  the  amusing 
group  of  whom  I thought.  Thus,  by  the  present,  I would  ex- 
press my  derision  without  knowing  it.  [tunga.]  Hungary. 
Saint  Elizabeth  came  from  there  as  I found  asserted  in  one  of 
your  books.  She  was  an  unfortunate  masochist  whom  they 
should  have  left  alone  in  Hungary.  She  died  very  young  be- 
cause of  the  maltreatment  she  received.  My  wife  also  bears 

made  the  treatment  difficult.  We  have  heard  that  the  recovery  finally 
resulted  nevertheless. 


370 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


with  all  piousness  and  nobility  of  mind  self -tormenting  traits 
which  disturb  our  marriage.  She  too  might  have  better  stayed 
in  her  parents’  home.  She  has  little  life  and  my  efforts  to 
unburden  her  spirit  are  fruitless.  (The  reader  will  fill  out  the 
repressed  wish : ‘ ‘ That  she  might  also  die  early  like  the  Hun- 
garian. ’ ’ 

[Nodaratschiwu]  “no”  — non,  not,  “daratsehiwu”:  Der- 
wisch,  “iwu”  = ich  will  (I  will).  “I  will  be  no  Dervish.” 
Dervishes  are  foolish  people  who  renounce  marriage  in  favor  of 
their  vows.  Nodara  reminds  me  of  Biblical  Gadara,  the  place 
where  the  possessed  dwelt,  melancholy  men  who  lived  among  the 
tombs.  I too  often  suffer  from  attacks  of  sadness  since  my 
marriage  has  lost  its  value  from  the  repellent  behavior  of  my 
wife.  I seem  meanwhile  like  one  who  has  no  wife  at  all  and 
from  exaggerated  conscientiousness  only  recoils  from  divorce 
because  he  promised  her  lifelong  fidelity.  Thus,  I too  am  a 
Dervish  who  has  pledged  himself  to  celibacy.  Now  it  occurs 
to  me  that  the  first  syllables  sound  much  like  a place  where  I 
had  a little  adventure.  On  a mountain  trip  to  Piz  Morteratsch, 
I went  with  a sympathetic  young  lady  whom  I esteemed  very 
highly,  into  an  empty  sheep-shed  in  order  to  see  the  interior. 
We  were  entirely  alone.  Then  a peculiar  feeling  came  over 
me.  Here  we  had  again  a hut  for  a happy  loving  couple! 
Nevertheless,  I was  not  really  in  love  with  the  girl  although  I 
liked  to  tarry  in  her  company. 

How  would  it  be  if  one  inverted  the  word  ? 

[uwischtaradon.]  Adon  is  a name  of  a god.  Adon  = 
Adonis  is  the  chief  god  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  husband  of  the 
love-goddess,  Astarte,  Babylonian  Ishtar.  Wonderful ! Also 
the  name  “Ischtar”  is  in  the  secret  word  directly  before  Adon 
(ischtar-adon)  ! Now  I understand  also  the  syllables 
“schiwu”;  they  mean  “Schiwa”  the  cruel  husband  of  the 
fruitful  love-goddess,  Kali  Durga,  who  in  spite  of  her  children, 
is  still  a virgin.  My  wife  also  has  children  but  will  have  no 
more  sexual  intercourse  and  acts  like  a prude ; her  character  is 
old-maidish.  A sadistic  trait  in  her  is  unmistakable.  In  view 
of  her  refusal;  I am  not  gratified  by  sexual  intercourse  with  her. 


CRYPTOLALIA  AND  CRYPTOGRAPHY  371 


Sometimes  I said  to  myself,  now  in  the  feeling  of  my  superior- 
ity I will  exercise  my  conjugal  rights  with  a certain  malicious 
joy,  thus  play  the  cruel  Sehiwa.  Yet  this  afforded  me  little 
gratification.  Ishtar  is  a right  sympathetic  figure  to  me.  Her 
descent  into  hell,  on  which,  she  left  behind  her  clothes  piece- 
meal, is  of  great  beauty.  My  wife  is  overprudish.  Likewise 
my  mother,  with  whom  I shared  the  sleeping-room  as  a ehild 
and  boy.  I considered  it  a sin  to  see  her  when  undressing  and 
therefore  fought  against  curiosity. 

[Uw]  the  poem  “Nis  Renders’ ’ by  Otto  Ernst.  “Mother, 
it  is  Uwe!”  I too  have  a brother  on  the  stormy  sea.  The 
newspapers  announce  to-day  the  destruction  of  ships.  I hope 
my  brother  is  saved.  ( Identification : ‘ ‘ And  I too ! ” ) 

The  cryptolalia  can  thus  be  interpreted  in  the  statement : I 
will  neither  renounce  love  like  a Dervish  as  a sacrifice  to  my 
marriage  vow  nor  like  a Sehiwa,  live  beside  my  masochistic 
wife  but  will  either  live  in  a little  hut  with  a beloved  or  like  an 
Adonis,  revel  by  the  side  of  a goddess  of  love  in  order  to  be 
saved.  In  the  second  word,  the  contrast  is  very  beautifully 
expressed : Normally  read,  there  is  the  need  from  the  complex, 
by  inversion,  the  gratification  of  the  complex.  The  thought 
that  the  word  must  be  read  backwards  suddenly  appeared  with 
force.  Probably  few  readers  would  have  thought  of  this 
method.  Philology  recognizes  it  and  names  it  by  the  word, 
reversal  of  sounds  or  metathesis.  Karl  Abel  introduces  in  his 
investigation  of  the  contrasting  meanings  of  primitive  words,  a 
number  of  excellent  examples  (page  320).  Freud,  from  whose 
work,  I derive  my  knowledge  of  this  phenomenon,  calls  to  mind 
how  often  inversion  occurs  in  the  dream  and  in  childish  speech 
(we  add : also  in  hysterical  attack)  .* 

(b)  cryptography 

The  process  of  ecstatic  speaking  with  tongues  returns,  as  we 
saw,  in  the  arbitrary  meaningless  speech  of  normal  individuals. 
I decided  therefore,  to  trace  the  automatic  cryptography,  the 
senseless  writing  in  healthy  mental  life.  My  expectations  were 

* Freud,  ti.  den  Gegensinn  d.  Urworte,  Jahrb.  II,  p.  184, 


372 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


completely  fulfilled.  I will  give  some  tests  in  the  following 
examples.  The  reader  will  recognize  that  the  method  of  ex- 
ploration is  exactly  the  same  as  that  which  we  apply  to  neu- 
rotic phenomena  and  the  dream.  That  the  analysis  is  repeat- 
edly incomplete  and  the  infantile  material  in  particular  is 
neglected,  I regret.  The  resistance  of  my  subjects  of  investi- 
gation, who  were  attached  only  by  scientific  interest,  unfortu- 
nately could  not  be  fully  eliminated.  We  know  indeed  that  for 
the  overcoming  of  the  resistances,  a whole  psychoanalysis  is 
often  necessary.  I may  consider  it  a gift  of  fate  that  the  in- 
quiry into  some  graphic  symptoms  should  afford  at  least  a 
clear  insight  into  the  genesis  of  cryptography. 

A French  artist  who  utilized  his  travels  to  become  acquainted 
with  psychoanalysis  from  his  own  observation,  was  kind  enough 
to  allow  me  to  analyze  a sketch  drawn  by  him  in  my  presence. 
I asked  for  some  kind  of  a senseless  drawing;  thereupon,  he 
sketched  the  following  figure  with  his  face  averted : 


(I  in  the  original  is  so  lightly  drawn  that  the  line  was  at 
first  overlooked.) 

[Think  hard  of  your  drawing  and  tell  your  associations.] 
The  line  (II)  shows  head,  throat  and  coiffure  of  a young  girl 
who  was  drawn  this  morning  in  a painting-school  for  ladies. 
While  I was  drawing  the  line,  I did  not  think  of  it  at  all.  The 
girl  sketched,  possesses  a fairly  plump  figure  and  bare  throat. 
Throat  and  bust  also  give,  however,  the  outline  of  a fairly 
plump  shoe. 

[The  throat.]  One  of  my  friends,  Mr.  X.  painted  a singer 
of  similar  figure,  Miss  T. 


CRYPTOGRAPHY 


373 


(The  plump  shoe.]  It  reminds  me  faintly  of  a comic  statu- 
ette which  represented  a vagabond  with  fat  feet  and  legs,  bent 
backwards.  One  shoulder  was  up  and  forwards,  the  eyes  were 
staring  and  protruding  as  in  Basedow’s  disease.  Similar  dis- 
tressing eyes,  I saw  in  a cow  some  years  ago  on  a trip  to  the 
country  which  I took  with  my  that-time  fiancee.  My  feet  were 
at  that  time  in  bad  shape,  I suffered  from  skin  trouble  and 
could  hardly  leave  the  place.  I had  to  bind  up  my  feet  and 
limped  pitifully.  To  my  vexation,  my  fiancee  paid  no  attention 
to  my  condition  and  behaved  heartlessly.  (About  one  and  one- 
half  years  later:  when  small,  I had  great  joy  in  pretty,  shiny 
boots.  I received  such  once  from  my  mother  whom  I sur- 
prised on  the  evening  before  a Christmas  celebration  when  she 
was  arranging  the  present.  From  elation,  I danced  first  on  one 
foot,  then  on  the  other,  so  that  I was  long  laughed  at  by  mother 
and  sister  on  this  account.) 

That  is  a brush-head  or  a plum.  [Brush-head.]  A little 
Parisian  who  paints  nicely.  He  is  a neat  little  fellow,  indus- 
trious, earnest,  kind,  tactful.  Ah,  now  some  traits  occur  to  me 
which  he  has  in  common  with  the  statuette ! 

[Plum.]  Or  damson.  It  reminds  me  that  this  year  I saw 
on  the  tree  below  my  studio  only  a single  damson  wdiere  ordi- 
narily the  tree  is  full  of  fruit. 

[Glance  at  the  whole  again.]  I can  also  imagine  a face  which 
looks  to  the  right.  It  is  turned  away,  the  angle  at  the  right 
under  the  top  denotes  the  chin.  [I  do  not  see  it  as  such.] 
But  I do.  It  is  an  unsympathetic  head  which  reminds  me  of  a 
servant  maid.  My  wife  blamed  me  unjustly  for  an  improper 
relation  with  her.  The  maid  had  slandered  me  since  she  de- 
sired me.  This  leads  me  to  a brunette  model  concerning  whom 
my  wife  likewise  suspected  me  falsely. 


Impression  of  a thumb.  A teacher  whom  I know  brought 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


374. 

me  a similar  figure  which  he  had  had  one  of  his  pupils  draw.  It 
was  an  almost  more  than  life-size  index  finger  right  well  worked 
out.  To  me,  it  looked  like  a male  organ.  The  same  boy,  K.  J. 
by  name,  drew  the  back  part  quite  like  the  one  I made  on  my 
sketch  just  now. 

[Let  us  turn  back  to  Miss  T.]  My  friend  X had  painted  her 
and  supported  her  with  money.  Then  she  left  him  in  the  lurch 
over  which  he  was  quite  cut  up.  Miss  T‘.  reminds  me  of  how 
my  brother  wished  to  get  a divorce  on  account  of  another  mar- 
ried lady.  I sought  to  prevent  the  divorce  by  a visit  and  in 
so  doing  got  home  too  late  for  dinner.  My  wife  accused  me  of 
trying  to  take  my  brother’s  place  and  became  violent  toward 
me.  Then  I held  her  hands,  whereupon  she  bit  me  in  the 
finger. 

[The  profile  first  drawn.]  The  brow  is  that  of  my  wife,  from 
whom  I would  be  divorced.  Otherwise  nothing.  Yes.  An 
old  man  with  a little  cap.  I can  think  of  no  one  under  this. 
Here  is  the  face  which  I imagined.  Hold ! I think  of  Voltaire. 
Our  academy  professor  showed  us  his  profile  which  was  crowned 
with  a little  cap.  At  that  time,  there  stood  beside  me  an  at- 
tractive lady,  a fellow  pupil,  who  greatly  favored  me  and  gave 
me  to  understand  that  she  loved  me.  Further,  the  profile  of 
Leo  XIII,  who  likewise  wore  a cap.  In  the  studio  of  my  friend 
X,  hangs  the  photograph  of  this  pope ; beside  it  was  his  money 
box.  Now  Miss  T.  appears  again,  whom  I once  met  there  be- 
fore the  relation  was  broken  off. 

So  far  with  the  young  Frenchman.  Now  we  will  attempt  to 
arrange  the  associations. 

The.  subject  begins  with  a day’s  experience,  the  sight  of  a 
sensual  girl  who  is  portrayed.  As  I remind  him  of  this  one,  it 
suddenly  occurs  to  him  that  he  had  also  repeatedly  wished  to 
paint  his  fiancee  but  never  got  beyond  three  studies.  Unfortu- 
nately, she  lacked  complete  distinctness,  so  that  the  girl  repre- 
sented to-day  is  killed  in  favor  of  the  one-time  wife. 

The  outlines  of  the  head,  neck  and  bust  remind  the  artist 
of  the  beloved  of  a friend  who  like  himself  had  lost  that  fer- 
vently loved  being  and  thereby  squandered  much  money.  The 


CRYPTOGRAPHY 


375 


profile  of  the  woman  (line  I)  is  combined  with  that  of  Voltaire 
because  thereby  the  pleasant  recollection  of  a pretty  seducer  is 
awakened  and  with  Leo  XIII  because  thereby  the  consoling 
admonition  on  the  analogous  fate  of  the  friend  X is  again  em- 
phasized. 

The  plump  shoe  will  likewise  help  to  mitigate  the  sorrow  over 
the  loss  of  the  wife.  The  vagabond  with  the  plump  shoe  and 
the  staring  eyes  is  naturally  a caricature  of  the  artist  himself : 
when  he  was  limping  around  with  bandaged  feet,  the  fiancee 
showed  herself  heartless.  The  identification  of  the  staring  eyes 
of  the  tramp  caricaturing  the  subject,  with  those  of  a cow  in 
the  neighborhood,  betrays  a not  very  flattering  compliment: 
you  were  a regular  cow  at  that  time  because  you  did  not  ap- 
preciate the  heartlessness  of  your  fiancee  and  separate  from 
her.  The  identification  with  the  vagabond  is  that  far  consola- 
tory as  the  subject  now  enjoys  a sure  income  and  is  well  clothed 
which  was  not  the  case  earlier. 

The  brush-top  refers  to  an  elegant  Parisian.  This  neat  fel- 
low who  has  traits  agreeing  with  the  vagabond,  consoles  for 
the  tramp  and  cow:  you  are  also  a neat,  earnest,  industrious 
man. 

The  one  damson  refers  in  its  sexual  symbolism  to  his  present 
eroticism  in  comparison  with  the  earlier. 

The  face  turned  to  the  right  which  is  hard  for  neutral  peo- 
ple to  imagine  (in  the  drawing)  simultaneously  calls  up  painful 
scenes  of  jealousy  with  the  former  wife  and  awakens  thoughts 
of  the -girl  who  desired  him. 

The  finger  hanging  beside  the  damson  realizes  in  connection 
with  the  associations  the  idea  of  a healthy,  extraordinarily 
potent  sexuality.  There  is  also  a by-play  here  referring  to  the 
wife  biting  the  finger  of  the  artist : now  the  finger  is  healed. 

The  cryptogram  finally  brings  the  following  to  expression : 
you  are  suffering  from  your  divorce  and  the  sexual  deficiency 
caused  thereby ; but  you  were  separated  from  a heartless,  jeal- 
ous and  biting  wife,  whom  you  really  should  not  have  married ; 
you  are  in  the  condition  of  your  friend,  are  more  potent  sexu- 
ally, a neater,  superior  man  who  won  the  favor  of  a worthy 


376 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


maiden  and  may  therefore  hope  to  win  a much  prettier  and 
better  wife. 

My  artist  was  at  once  convinced  of  the  correctness  of  this 
explanation  which  disclosed  his  deepest,  little  understood  feel- 
ings. 

8.  Manifestation-Acts 
(a)  symptomatic  acts 

Many  apparently  senseless  and  accidental  acts,  which  appear 
once  or  habitually,  are  disclosed  by  analysis  as  psychologically 
imperative  manifestations.  Freud  gives  such  acts  the  name, 
“symptomatic  acts”  and  defines  them  as  those  “performances 
which  the  person  executes,  as  one  says,  automatically,  uncon- 
sciously, without  paying  attention,  as  if  playing,  to  which  he 
would  deny  all  significance  and  which  he  explains  as  of  no 
account  and  accidental  when  he  is  questioned  concerning 
them.  ” * 

Where  we  are  dealing  wdth  habits  of  this  kind — in  Swiss 
speech,  they  are  called  ‘ ‘ Modeli,  ’ ’ little  mannerisms — they  often 
have  an  obsessional  character  without  their  possessor’s  knowing 
it.  He  first  becomes  cognizant  of  this  fact  when  he  wishes  to 
give  them  up  but  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts,  cannot  do  it. 

A student  who  had  fallen  into  a dissolute  life  had  the  habit, 
whenever  he  was  in  a restaurant  in  the  company  of  ladies,  of 
taking  matches  and  bending  them  in  three  places  so  that  the 
stick  was  at  first  a little  curved.  Then  he  brought  the  two  ends 
together  and  formed  an  oval.  This  play  he  kept  up  until  all 
the  matches  were  used  up.  The  analysis  brought  him  to  the 
recognition  that  he  was  deriving  a male  and  female  symbol. 

A woman  with  obsessional  neurosis  wishes  to  show  me  a heart- 
shaped  medallion.  Unintentionally,  she  tears  it  from  its  chain 
and  lets  it  roll  at  my  feet.  The  confession  concerned  me  and 
still  as  the  discussion  of  the  “transference”  will  show,  not  me. 

Karl  Hase  relates  in  his  autobiography  that  on  the  day  that 

* Freud,  Bruchstiick  einer  Hysterie-Analyse.  KI.  Schriften  II,  p. 


67. 


SYMPTOMATIC  ACTS 


377 

the  child  of  his  beloved  was  baptized,  the  ring  given  him  by  her 
was  smashed  in  the  fencing  room.* 

Most  people  cultivate  at  a certain  age  a ceremonial  of  gait 
which  I intend  to  treat  in  a special  study.  Sometimes,  they 
count  their  steps  in  walking,  up  to  a certain  number,  or  they 
accentuate  every  second,  third  or  fourth  step  or  they  devote 
special  attention  to  the  line  of  junction  of  two  flag-stones  in  the 
side-walk,  either  avoiding  it  or  stepping  on  it.  In  all  cases 
analyzed  by  me,  this  refers  to  a process  of  diversion,  the  fund 
of  energy  of  which  springs  from  a complex  and  this  has  already 
occasioned  an  obsessional  neurosis  even  though  it  may  be  a 
slight  one. 

One  pupil  always  had  to  count  his  steps  when  he  passed  a 
trolley-car  barn  where  cars  go  in  and  out  (compare  the  station 
dream,  page  358). 

Another  student  remembers  that  he  had  the  habit  only  on  a 
certain  street  curve.  With  his  attention  concentrated  on  the 
place,  he  recalls  that  there  were  obscene  pictures  on  the  wall 
opposite  which  he  wished  to  avoid. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  neurotic  patient  who  drew 
his  finger  under  the  nose  (page  78).  A teacher  told  me 
that  one  of  his  pupils,  in  spite  of  all  admonitions,  constantly 
pushed  his  thumb  through  his  button-hole.  The  motive  is 
obvious.  Nail  polishing,  picking  of  the  nose  and  tearing  of 
the  skin  from  the  finger  (214)  are  comprehensible  in  this  con- 
nection. 

Many  symptomatic  acts  are  already  obsessions  before  they 
are  recognized  as  such.  The  educator  can  easily  observe  this 
by  taking  the  field  against  certain  striking  habits  in  writing, 
for  example  flourishes,  writing  above  or  below  the  line,  shading 
the  loops,  etc.  That  handwriting  is  full  of  symbolisms,  no 
one  denies;  that  it  is  closely  connected  with  the  complex,  we 
saw  in  the  variations  of  writer ’s  cramp,  as  well  as  in  the  form 
of  writing. 

Since  the  literature,  so  far  as  I know,  affords  no  analysis  of 
handwriting,  I will  give  a little  example : 

* K.  Hase,  Ideale  u.  Irrtiimer.  Leipzig,  1872,  p.  47. 


878 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


First,  the  previous  history:  A youth  of  twenty-one  years 
suffered  from  downright  anger  at  God  because  his  father  died, 
further,  from  anxiety  when  he  found  his  dwelling  closed. 
Then  he  hastened  in  violent  excitement  into  the  studio  of  his 
elder  sister  who  quieted  him. 

[You  stand  before  the  closed  door.]  “My  sister.  She  is 
engaged  to  a foreigner.  I cannot  endure  him.”  [You  stand 
before  the  door.]  “The  mother  might  be  dead,  therefore  the 
door  is  closed.  I would  then  go  to  the  sister.  I would  like 
best  to  have  her  accompany  me  home.  I always  wait  before  our 
house  until  I see  a light.”  [You  stand  before  the  door.] 
“The  Sunday-School.  I go  there  with  mother.  Now  I detest 
orthodoxy.  Mother  is  angry  because  I no  longer  go  to  church. 
She  became  excited  and  I said  many  things  which  hurt  her. 
She  said : I might  wait  until  she  was  dead.  ” [You  stand  be- 
fore the  door.]  “My  sister  and  her  fiance  wish  to  take  a 
dwelling  of  their  own.  I am  anxious  lest  she  be  unhappy. 
Someone  has  come  between  my  sister  and  me,  she  is  no  longer 
the  same  toward  me  as  formerly.  I loved  her  very  much. 
Formerly  I loved  a girl  who  was  unfaithful  to  me.  Since  then 
I have  loved  only  my  sister  and  hence  her  all  the  more  in- 
tensely.” 

The  anxiety  over  the  closed  door  is  related  to  the  wish  for 
the  death  of  the  religion-compelling  mother.  The  sister  is 
phantasied  into  the  closed  dwelling  because  she  too  forms  the 
object  of  improper  wishes.  Her  threatened  misfortune  is  na- 
turally only  rationalization.  In  the  studio,  she  is  harmless: 
the  brother  flees  from  the  image  to  reality.  This  young  man 
has  the  following  bad  habit : 

The  loops  of  many  large  letters,  especially  of  the  D,  but  also 
of  the  B,  P and  G,  and  further  the  inner  angle  of  the  W,  he  is  in 
the  habit  of  shading  although  it  delays  him  and  offends  his 
esthetic  sense. 

[Shaded  letters.]  “I  do  not  fill  my  place,  I might  do  more. 
Life  has  often  seemed  desolate  since  father  died.” 

[D.]  “Cover  (Deckel).  The  cover  of  a coffin.  It  is  lifted 


ANALYSIS  OF  HAND-WRITING 


879 


from  the  coffin  and  stands  at  the  side.  I have  repeatedly  phan- 
tasied  this.  This  view,  I had  upon  the  death  of  my  grand- 
mother. I fill  out  the  empty  place  of  the  coffin.  Now  I see 
my  grandmother  in  the  coffin  because  I do  not  dare  to  see  the 
mother  there.  ’ ’ 

More  could  not  be  obtained  in  this  hour  concerning  the 
“D.” 

[Shaded  B.]  “Biel.  When  my  parents  were  there  once,  I 
remained  behind  with  the  strict,  bad,  hated  grandmother.” 
[B.]  “Bible.  Father  liked  to  read  aloud  from  it.  Mother 
held  me  ip  her  arms.  This  pleased  me.  Sister  did  not  care 
much  for  the  Bible  readings.  She  was  therefore  scolded  by 
father.  Then  I was  sorry  for  her.  Thus  the  Bible  lost  value 
for  me.  I feel  that  I still  constantly  undervalue  it.  I suffer 
constantly  from  a feeling  of  guilt.  For  a long  time  after 
father’s  death,  I wanted  to  shoot  myself.  Mother  restrained 
me.  I often  got  on  badly  because  I deserted  her.” 

Next  session : 

[D.]  “Roof  or  ceiling  (Decke).  I imagine  the  ceiling  of 
a room.  Until  the  last  (likewise  the  first)  consultation  with 
you,  I had  feared  from  my  fifth  or  sixth  year,  the  ceiling  would 
fall  down  on  me.  All  ceilings,  even  at  school.  When  I was 
quite  a small  child,  I saw  the  devil  in  the  folds  of  clothes  hang- 
ing there.  I was  in  grandmother’s  room.  It  was  her  apron, 
from  the  upper  opening  of  which,  a devil’s  head  looked  out. 
(The  drawing  sketched  at  my  request,  showed  the  apron  of 
cylindrical  form  held  by  its  upper  points.)  The  devil  was 
thin  with  goat’s  beard  and  horns.  In  grandmother’s  room, 
there  was  a picture  with  rectangular  slips  of  paper  before  it : 
looked  at  from  in  front,  it  showed  Luther,  from  one  side, 
Zwingli,  from  the  other  side,  Calvin,  who  with  his  beard  quite 
resembled  the  devil.”  [Reformers.]  “Nothing.”  [Ceiling.] 
“It  is  white.  Once,  before  the  vision  of  the  devil,  a beetle  or  a 
mouse  fell  down  from  the  ceiling  upon  me  in  bed.  From  that 
time,  I was  greatly  afraid  of  fire  and  thunder  storms,  the  latter 
up  to  the  time  of  military  service.  Otherwise,  nothing  more.” 
[Devil.]  “I  knew  that  he  tormented  and  scourged  others. 


380 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


The  grandmother  also  whipped  me  much.  In  a Punch  and 
Judy  show,  I saw  how  the  devil  took  a woman  across  his  knee, 
raised  her  skirts  and  spanked  her.” 

Otherwise  there  was  nothing  else  to  be  gained  except  a child- 
hood dream : “When  I was  six  years  old,  I dreamed  during  a 
fever  that  I was  screwed  to  a carpenter’s  bench  and  worked 
with  plane  and  hatchet.  That  probably  means  improvement.” 
(The  child  still  slept  at  that  time  in  his  parents’  room). 

The  resistances  were  still  apparently  very  strong.  I ven- 
tured to  give  the  youth  the  interpretation  which  he  at  once 
recognized  as  correct  since  he  had  already  formed  the  thoughts 
expressed  but  had  immediately  rejected  them. 

The  shading  of  the  D went  back  to  the  same  motives  of  hate 
and  defence  as  the  anxiety  before  the  dwelling.  Otherwise,  the 
phantasy  of  the  mother  in  her  coffin  could  not  occur  immedi- 
ately. Why  the  cover  standing  right  beside  the  coffin  made  so 
strong  an  impression  I do  not  know.  Perhaps  among  other 
things,  it  was  affected  by  the  clang  relationship  with  “Decke” 
(ceiling),  which  word  has  repeatedly  been  a critical  one.  The 
animal  falling  from  the  ceiling  could  naturally  only  set  free  a 
condition  of  anxiety  already  present,  like  the  beetle  on  page  103. 
That  the  devil  seen  in  the  clothes  and  the  dream  of  being  planed 
and  hewn  are  immediately  associated  with  this,  points  the  way 
for  the  student  of  anxiety-hysteria : The  devil  rising  from  the 
interior  assumes  on  one  hand  the  role  of  embodied  “Schaulust” 
(pleasure  in  looking)  (compare  the  obscene  posture  of  the 
woman  who  was  spanked),  on  the  other  hand,  that  of  the  hate- 
wish  which  the  boy  with  a passion  for  whipping  would  repay  in 
like  coin.  The  scene  on  the  joiner’s  bench  naturally  corre- 
sponds to  a cohabitation-phantasy:  The  frightened  child  does 
not  know  the  meaning  of  the  process  seen  in  the  parents,  his 
instincts  are  powerfully  excited,  as  unfortunately  not  a few 
children  show  who  even  force  themselves  on  the  mother  with 
physical  signs  of  desire.  I know  of  a youngster  not  yet  of 
school  age  who  held  himself  against  his  indignant  mother: 
“Father  does  that  too.”  The  parents  would  probably  have 
taken  oath  that  the  child  had  observed  nothing. 


ANALYSIS  OF  PASSION  FOR  TRAVEL  381 


The  apparently  insignificant  writing  hobby  had  therefore  a 
very  real  background.  Unfortunately,  the  anxiety  vanished  at 
once,  the  son  assumed  a correct  attitude  toward  his  mother,  since 
he  had  recognized  his  hate  and  desire,  and  would  not  submit  to 
more  searching  investigation  as  he  now  felt  “entirely  cured.” 
I can  therefore  offer  only  a not  uninteresting  fragment. 

Passion  for  travel  is  also  very  often  a manifestation.  A girl 
pupil  of  thirteen  years  longs  passionately  for  the  north,  while 
she  shows  no  interest  for  the  south,  no  matter  how  alluringly 
one  may  picture  it.  She  studies  northern  mythology  assidu- 
ously which  she  has  learned  from  a number  of  books.  The 
analysis  shows  that  she  has,  easily  brought  her  family  into  the 
saga  of  the  gods.  To  Wotan,  she  associates:  “He  is  a seem- 
ingly young  man,  kept  young  artificially  by  Freya ’s  love  apple, 
with  one  eye,  in  long  mantle,  with  long  pendant  hat.  I con- 
sider it  improper  that  he  took  his  daughter  as  wife.  My 
grandfather  was  also  old  but  he  looked  strikingly  young,  his 
cheeks  were  rosy.” 

[The  mantle.]  “As  district  judge,  he  wore  a robe.”  [The 
hat.]  “He  also  wore  a lawyer’s  cap  that  hung  down  some- 
what.” [One-eyed.]  “He  was  small  and  near-sighted  and 
wore  a monocle.  ’ ’ [ Half  eyesight,  at  the  same  time,  representa- 

tion by  opposite,  hence  Wotan  the  one-eyed  is  your  grand- 
father.] To  Loki,  she  reported:  “He  robbed  Freya  of  the 
feather  dress,  the  badge  of  her  virginity,  and  turned  himself 
into  a fly;  my  brother  took  improper  liberties  with  me.  He 
was  as  persistent  as  a stinging-fly.  Loki  had  the  ‘Fenrir- 
Wolf.  ’ : My  brother  liked  to  frighten  me  with  our  wolf-skin 
rug.”  To  Thor,  she  associated:  “When  Loki  had  stolen  the 
feather  dress,  he  had  to  make  the  damage  good.  In  so  doing, 
he  overcame  dangers:  A giant’s  daughter  sent  all  streams 
against  him,  another  concealed  herself  under  his  chair  and 
raised  him  up  to  squeeze  him  against  the  ceiling  but  he  pushed 
up  with  a pole  and  pressed  the  giant’s  daughter  together.” 

[What  comes  into  your  mind  to  all  this?]  My  father  must 
make  good  what  my  brother,  Loki,  is  guilty  of.  Mother  and  I 
often  wept  whole  streams,  he  remained  untouched.” 


382 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


[The  giant’s  daughter  under  the  chair.]  “When  small,  I 
once  crept  under  an  upholstered  chair  to  spy  out  what  the 
parents  did.  My  father  sat  down  on  the  chair.  ’ ’ The  evil  wish 
against  the  consciously  hated  father  here  comes  to  plain  expres- 
sion. A number  of  other  relations  came  to  light  and  explained 
the  pathological  preference  for  the  north  and  the  travel-fever. 
Thus,  I find  confirmed  in  this  analytic  subject,  as  in  others, 
what  A.  von  Winterstein  says  concerning  the  unconscious 
motives  for  travel.* 

Keen  students  of  humanity  have  long  known  the  facts  dis- 
closed by  Freud  with  scientific  means.  Very  prettily  says 
Rousseau : 

“We  probably  never  make  a mechanical  movement,  the  cause 
of  which  we  could  not  find  within  us  if  we  only  knew  how  to 
find  it.  Yesterday,  I went  along  the  new  street  on  the  banks 
of  the  Bierre  to  botanize.  As  I approached  the  Barriere 
d’Enfer,  I suddenly  turned  to  the  right  into  the  fields  and  went 
to  the  range  of  hills  which  border  the  little  stream.  In  and  for 
itself,  this  is  nothing  surprising ; but  when  I remembered  that 
I had  already  taken  this  by-way  mechanically  many  times,  I 
sought  the  cause  within  myself  and  had  to  laugh  when  I dis- 
covered it. 

“Behind  the  Barriere,  there  was  daily  in  her  place  a woman 
who  sold  refreshments.  The  woman  had  a poor  little  child  who 
went  on  crutches.”  Rousseau  liked  for  a while  to  converse 
with  him,  then  this  became  irksome.  “From  then  on,  I did  not 
like  to  go  by  and  finally  took  the  by-way  quite  mechanically. 
I brought  this  to  light  when  I thought  over  the  circumstances ; 
for  nothing  of  all  this  had  been  conscious  to  me  up  to  this 
time.”  t 

The  poets  also  assign  great  value  to  the  symptomatic  act  and 
we  thereby  feel  esthetic  pleasure,  a sign  that  our  own  un- 
conscious understands  that  of  the  master. 

* Compare  A.  v.  Winterstein,  Zur  Psychoanalyse  des  Reisens,  Imago 
I,  pp.  489-506. 

■f  Rousseau,  Reveries  du  Promeneur  solitaire.  Zbl.  Ill,  p.  52,  re- 
ported by  E.  Jung. 


ERRONEOUSLY-EXECUTED  ACTS 


383 


Jakobsen  describes  in  his  “Niels  Lyhne,”  how  a heroine  who 
fell  in  love  with  the  friend  of  her  husband  went  carefully  bal- 
ancing along  the  straight  line  of  the  pattern  in  the  carpet. 
Plainly,  her  action  expresses  the  wish  to  remain  in  the  right, 
straight  path  (reaction  against  the  adulterous  desire).  This 
habit  is  familiar  to  the  psychiatrist  as  obsessional  act* 

Rudolf  Hans  Bartsch  tells  in  his  “ Elisabeth  Kott  ” of  a lover, 
who,  not  able  to  gain  his  beloved,  separates  her  fingers  and' 
presses  his  kissing  lips  between  them  and  has  to  sneeze  in  her 
presence.  That  the  latter  means  the  ejaculation,  I know  from 
some  of  my  analyses  and  those  of  a colleague. 

Here  belong  the  many  aversions  against  certain  acts  and 
foods,  as  well  as  mysterious  appetites,  etc.  We  have  already 
given  occasional  instances  of  these  (215). 

(b)  erroneously-executed  acts 

Symptomatic  acts  in  which  an  intention  is  inadvertently  and 
strikingly  disturbed,  without  visible  external  cause,  are  called 
erroneously-executed  acts  (Fehlhandlungen) , thus  for  example, 
errors  in  speech  and  writing,  losing  things,  coming  too  late. 
We  have  already  spoken  of  forgetting.  But  the  other  er- 
roneous acts  as  well,  go  back  to  intrigues  of  the  unconscious. 

An  adherent  and  an  opponent  of  psychoanalysis  met  each 
other  in  an  inn  and  at  once  got  into  a lively  discussion.  The 
opponent  exclaimed  excitedly:  “How  can  you  assert  that 
behind  an  accidental  movement  there  is  an  unconscious  inten- 
tion? That  is  unscientific,  entirely  unscientific.”  At  this 
moment  the  emotionally  gesticulating  man  knocked  his  glass 
over  the  clothes  of  his  vis  a vis,  the  analyst.  The  day  after  that 
the  same  gentleman  made  a mistake  which  betrayed  him,  by  pro- 
claiming: “In  the  year  1893,  Breuer  and  I — ah — Breuer  and 
Freud  published  the  discovery  ...”  I am  indebted  for  both 
these  pretty  examples  to  a reliable  eye-  and  ear-witness.  Now 
the  reader  may  ask  himself  whether  it  is  sensible  to  debate  sci- 
entifically with  any  one  who  betrays  his  true  motives  so  plainly. 

* Maeder,  Psycholog.  Unters.  an  Dem.-prsec.-Kranken.  Jahrb.  n,  p. 
197. 


384 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Brill  gives  an  interesting  case:  He  was  questioned  by 
another  psychiatrist:  “I  would  like  to  know  what  you  would 
do  in  the  following  case : I know  a nurse  who  was  involved  as 
co-respondent  in  a divorce  proceeding.  The  wife  sued  her  hus- 
band for  divorce  and  named  the  nurse  as  co-respondent  and  he 
received  the  divorce.”  Brill  interrupted:  “You  mean:  she 
received  the  divorce,  ’ ’ which  was  affirmed.  He  now  expressed 
his  surmise  that  his  questioner  was  the  hero  of  the  story  if  he 
had  not  previously  said  that  he  was  unmarried,  for  then  the 
error  in  speech  would  be  explained  by  the  wish  that  his  wife, 
and  not  he,  had  lost  the  case.  The  suspected  person  denied  his 
connection  with  the  case  described,  did  it,  however,  with  exag- 
gerated affect  reaction  so  that  Brill  and  a third  physician  who 
was  present,  Dr.  Fink,  were  strengthened  in  their  suspicions. 
Later  they  learned  on  reliable  authority  that  they  had  inter- 
preted entirely  correctly.  The  new  witness  was  convinced  by 
this  experience  of  the  correctness  of  the  Freudian  mechanisms.* 

Freud  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  Schiller  recognized  the 
deeper  meaning  of  the  error  in  speech.  In  his  “Piccolomini” 
(I,  5)  he  describes  the  excitement  of  Octavio  over  his  son  who 
is  on  Wallenstein’s  side,  since  he  accompanied  the  latter’s 
daughter  into  camp.  To  the  Emperor ’s  emissary,  he  says : 

“Come,  I must 

At  once  follow  the  miserable  track 
With  my  eyes  see — come — 

Questeriberg : What  for,  whither? 

Octavio  (hurriedly)  : To  her! 

Questenberg : To— 

Octavio  (correcting  himself)  : To  the  duke!  Let  us  go!” 

The  error  in  speech  shows  us  that  the  father  saw  through  the 
erotic  motive  of  his  son.f 

Rank  found  a similar  estimation  of  erroneous  act  in 
Shakespeare.  The  latter  in  the  “Merchant  of  Venice,”  has 
Portia,  hindered  by  an  oath  from  an  open  avowal  of  her  love, 
say: 

* A.  Brill,  Zwei  interessante  Fiille  von  Versprechen.  Zbl.  II,  p.  33  f. 

f Freud,  Z.  Psychop.  d.  Alltagslebcns,  p.  48. 


CONDUCT  OF  LIFE 


385 


“One  half  of  me  is  yours,  the  other  half  yours — 

Mine,  I would  say.”  * 

In  addition  to  Freud,  one  finds  in  the  Zentralblatt  fur  Psycho- 
analyse a great  number  of  further  examples.  An  unbelievably 
large  number  of  secrets  can  be  read  by  the  analyst  in  his  fellow- 
men  and  by  the  analytically  trained  educator  in  his  pupils  with- 
out their  knowing  it.  But  one  is  glad  not  to  have  to  pry  into 
complexes  without  necessity  and  judges  the  symptoms  of  his 
neighbors  with  the  charity  which  one  wishes  for  his  own  im- 
perfections. 

(C)  THE  MANIFESTATION  IN  THE  CONDUCT  OF  LIFE 

Even  the  most  important  and  best  considered  decisions  often 
prove  to  be  the  effects  of  subliminal  instinctive  impulses,  the 
carefully  formulated  reasons  being  rationalizations. 

A fourteen  year  old  youth  who  wishes  to  become  a chemist, 
showed  in  his  earliest  years  an  extremely  strong  interest  for 
feces.  Countless  times,  the  two  year  old  child  said  that  the 
“disgusting  ravens”  had  eaten  horse  manure.  Later  he 
showed  abnormally  strong  disgust  for  fecal  odors.  "When  about 
eight  years  old  he  visited  a chemical  laboratory  and  wished  im- 
mediately to  become  a chemist.  As  reason,  he  gave  only  that  it 
smelled  so  good  in  its  vicinity. 

We  saw  in  many  examples  (197,  268)  how  the  choice  of  hus- 
band or  wife  is  -influenced  by  the  unconscious  and  indeed  by 
infantile  fixation  which  precedes  the  educator. 

I will  add  a few  other  illustrations:  A just  jailer,  about 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  fell  in  love  with  one  of  the  female 
prisoners,  seven  years  his  senior  and  not  very  pretty,  who  had 
been  brought  in  on  account  of  prostitution  and  cheating  and 
who,  as  a result  of  spinal  disease,  was  anesthetic  to  the  knees 
(251).  He  procured  his  discharge  at  once  and  married  the 
prisoner  soon  after  her  release.  The  man  had  a fixation  upon 
his  mother  and  had  nursed  her  in  her  long  illness  until  her 
death.  The  wife,  too,  whom  he  chose  as  substitute,  he  treated 

* Rank,  Em  Bei  spiel  v.  poet.  Verwertg.  d "V  erspreehens.  Zbl.  I,  p. 
109  f. 


386 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


with  touching  solicitude.  An  analysis  in  this  case  would 
naturally  have  been  inexpedient  since  the  good  man  was  well. 

The  best  representation  of  a brother-sister  complex  is  given 
by  Ibsen  in  his  drama,  “Klein  Eyolf.”  My  observations  con- 
firm the  psychological  view  of  the  great  student  of  humanity  in 
every  point.  The  editor  and  former  teacher,  Allmers,  has 
fathered  his  crippled  Eyolf  while  he  tormented  him  with  in- 
struction. He  could  not  complete  a book  on  human  responsi- 
bility since  the  higher  duty  impelled  him  to  devote  himself 
wholly  and  exclusively  to  his  little  son  to  mitigate  this  one’s 
bitter  loss.  From  his  wife,  he  withdrew  his  love  except  a rem- 
nant which  could  not  satisfy  her.  After  the  death  of  the 
crippled  child,  the  doubting  father  sought  consolation  in  the 
sister  whom  he  called  his  dear  true  Eyolf  and  the  love  for  his 
wife  died  entirely.  Why  the  abnormally  strong  concentration 
on  the  child  ? Plainly,  Allmers  seeks  to  silence  his  feeling  of 
guilt  as  he  had  already  undertaken  by  his  book  on  responsibil- 
ity. But  the  true  reason,  consciousness  does  not  admit.  He 
had  allowed  himself  to  be  enticed  aside  for  a moment  by  his 
wife  as  the  child  lay  peacefully  sleeping  on  the  table.  While 
he  yielded  himself  to  love,  it  fell.  The  sin  of  the  father  is  con- 
sequently not  so  great  as  the  mother ’s.  A cruel  fate  has  utilized 
a little  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  parents. 

The  motive  for  the  guilt  lies  deeper : Allmers  gives  his  child 
the  name  which  his  sister  would  once  have  borne  if  she  had  been 
a boy.  He  loves  her,  as  the  sister  feels,  not  as  a sister  ought  to 
be  loved.  The  living  with  her  he  calls  a particularly  rare 
holiday.  His  wife,  too,  he  took  only  to  care  for  his  sister.  No 
doubt  he  has  remained  in  his  infantile  attitude  toward  the 
sister,  therefore  he  can  transfer  no  real  love  to  his  excellent 
wife.  The  brief  love  frenzy,  in  reality,  applied  to  the  sister. 
The  child  who  bore  her  name,  he  had  wished  from  her.  There- 
fore, Mrs.  Allmers  cannot  love  it.  She  herself  explains  that  the 
aunt  stands  between  her  and  the  little  son.  The  motivation 
that  the  sister-in-law  had  fascinated  the  child  naturally  does 
not  correctly  express  the  state  of  affairs.  This  attempt  at 
rationalization  has  failed.  Rather,  the  unhappy  wife  suspects 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  THE  UNCONSCIOUS  387 


that  her  rival  is  bound  to  her  beloved  husband  in  repressed 
incestuous  love.  As  a matter  of  fact,  Allmers’  feeling  of  guilt 
goes  back  to  this  incestuous  desire.  He  cannot  finish  his  book 
on  responsibility,  as  the  sensitive  wife  rightly  says,  because  of 
distrust  of  himself.  The  brother-sister  complex  which  also 
hinders  the  sister  in  her  transference  upon  another,  goes  back 
in  Allmers  to  the  mother-  and  father-complex:  He  wishes  to 
atone  for  the  harshness  of  the  father  toward  the  mother  and 
sister.  In  the  endeavor  to  make  good  the  father’s  fault  he 
identifies  himself  only  too  well  with  him,  in  that  he  treats  his 
own  wife  badly. 

This  is  all,  most  true  to  life.  The  pastor  who  analyzes,  sees 
many  marital  misfortunes  proceed  from  unconscious  inter- 
change of  persons  dictated  by  complexes  of  relationship.  Jung 
gives  splendid  examples  of  the  father-complex  in  his  fine  paper : 
“Die  Bedeutung  des  Vaters  fur  das  Schieksal  des  Einzelnen”  * 
(The  Significance  of  the  Father  for  the  Fate  of  the  Individual) . 

These  things,  too,  were  long  familiar  to  poetic  intuition.  I 
mention  only  the  masterly  novel,  “Die  Tochter  vom  Oberbuhl” 
by  the  Swiss  poet,  Jakob  Frei. 

That  which  we  assert  of  the  great  decisions  of  life,  applies 
also  for  all  the  highest  productions  of  the  mind,  even  for 
philosophy.  We  cannot  take  up  this  problem  in  this  book. 
One  example  of  Platonism  and  Kantianism  conditioned  by 
complexes  I have  already  given  on  page  312.  Similarly, 
Fichte’s  theory  of  the  absolute  ego,  solipsism,  pessimism,  etc., 
may  be  shown  to  be  manifestations.  “Materialism,  which 
denies  the  ego  and  has  its  rise  wholly  in  the  ‘ outer  world,  ’ one 
can  consider  as  the  most  complete  projection  imaginable;  the 
solipsism  which  denies  the  whole  world,  i.e.,  receives  it  into  the 
ego,  is  the  highest  stage  of  introjection.”  t The  most  sharp- 
sighted  of  all  profound  psychologists,  Nietzsche,  even  ventures 

* Jahrb.  I,  pp.  155-173,  also  separate  imprint. 

t Ferenczi,  Philosophic  u.  Psychoanalyse.  Imago  I,  p.  521.  (In  the 
projection,  one  feels  subjective  processes  producing  discomfort  as  in- 
fluences of  the  outer  world,  in  the  introjection,  inversely,  processes  of 
the  outer  world  as  one’s  own  (p.  520).  Unfortunately,  Ferenczi  un- 
derstands the  concept  of  philosophy  in  a very  low  sense,  for  he  separates 


388 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


the  declaration:  “One  must  reckon  the  greatest  part  of 
conscious  thinking  under  the  activities  of  instinct,  even  in  the 
case  of  philosophical  thinking ; . . . the  most  conscious  thought 
of  a philosopher  is  secretly  guided  by  his  instincts  and  forced 
into  certain  channels.  Further,  behind  all  logic  and  its 
apparent  independence  of  movement,  stand  estimations,  plainly 
spoken  physiological  demands  for  the  preservation  of  a certain 
kind  of  life.”*  Freud’s,!  Ferenczi’s,  % Putnam’s  ||  and 
Schrecker ’s  ]\  articles  on  a psychoanalytic  comprehension  of 
philosophy  should  at  least  be  mentioned. 

9.  Art 

With  unsurpassable  succinctness  and  clarity,  Freud  summar- 
izes the  results  of  analytic  investigation  of  the  psychology  of  art 
in  these  words:  “The  artist  is  originally  a man  who  turns 
away  from  reality  because  he  cannot  directly  make  peace  with 
the  renunciation  of  gratification  of  instinct  demanded  by  reality 
and  preserves  his  erotic  and  ambitious  wishes  in  phantasy  life. 

it  sharply  from  science,  indeed  asserts  that  the  two  belong  to  different 
principles,  philosophy  (as  at  least  is  hinted)  to  the  pleasure-principle. 
(Ferenczi,  Phil.  u.  Psa.  Imago,  p.  521.)  Is  the  concept  of  the  atom, 
of  law,  of  causality,  invented  from  the  substance  of  the  pleasure-prin- 
ciple and  is  there  an  exact  science  which  does  not  have  to  work  step 
by  step  with  philosophical  concepts?  So  far  as  one  assigns  to  philosophy 
the  task  of  withdrawing  from  the  contradictions  existing  in  the  (al- 
ways naive)  concepts  of  experience  and  deriving  a conceivable  system  of 
concepts,  no  penetrating  scholar  can  get  along  without  it.  That  na- 
tural science  has  been  able  to  exclude  autism  entirely,  even  Ferenczi  will 
not  assert.  Putnam  has  defended  the  just  claims  of  philosophy  against 
him  in  excellent  manner.  (Putnam,  Antwort  auf  d.  Entwiderung  des 
Hrn.  Dr.  Ferenczi.  Imago  I,  p.  527  ff.)  Silberer  has  also  warned 
against  the  error  of  wishing  to  solve  the  metaphysical  problems  of 
truth  by  psychoanalytic  interpretation.  (Silberer,  E.  prinzip.  An- 
regung.  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  802.) 

* Nietzsche,  Jenseits  von  Gut  und  Bose.  (First  Part,  3.) 

f Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  375  f. 

$ Ferenczi,  Introjektion  und  ubertragung.  dahrb.  I,  p.  430. 

||  Putnam,  A plea  for  the  study  of  philosophic  methods  in  preparation 
for  psychoanalytical  work.  Journal  of  Abnormal  Psychology  1911,  Oct.- 
Nov.,  pp.  249-264. 

If  Paul  Schrecker,  Henry  Bergsons  Philosophic  der  Personlichkeit, 
Munich,  1912. 


ANALYSIS  OF  ARTISTIC  PRODUCTION  389 


He  finds,  however,  the  way  back  from  this  phantasy  world  to 
reality,  in  that,  thanks  to  special  talents,  he  molds  his  phantasies 
to  new  kinds  of  realities,  which  are  allowed  to  pass  current  by 
people  as  valuable  likenesses  of  reality.  Thus  he  becomes,  in  a 
way,  hero,  king,  creator,  favorite,  whom  he  would,  without 
taking  the  tedious  route  of  real  changes  in  the  outer  world.”  * 
I limit  myself  to  a few  cases. 

Franz  J.  is  an  intelligent  youth  of  eighteen  years  with  whom 
I have  repeatedly  conversed  on  religious,  philosophical  and  eth- 
ical topics.  Sprung  from  pietistic  circles,  he  had  attained  to 
freer  views.  Since  the  beginning  of  our  two  years’  acquaint- 
anceship he  had  met  me  with  confiding  frankness  so  that  I con- 
cluded that  there  was  a favorable  transference  relation.  Some 
months  ago  his  behavior  toward  me  changed.  His  criticism, 
which  I had  previously  heard  gladly,  assumed  a grumbling  tone 
and  expressed  fundamental  negativism  in  scornful  opposition. 
When  the  youth  finally  explained  all  ethical  values  as  nonsense 
and  almost  in  the  same  breath,  complained  of  the  lack  of  moral 
earnestness  in  his  comrades,  I recommended  analytic  treatment 
to  him,  which,  after  brief  resistance,  he  accepted.  It  is,  of 
course,  preferable  that  the  subject  for  analysis  should  come  of 
his  own  volition ; but  many  times  a direct  summons  is  not  to  be 
avoided. 

At  his  first  appearance,  Franz  confessed  that  life  was  most 
distasteful  to  him.  He  had  fallen  out  entirely  with  his  parents, 
and  of  his  comrades,  with  one  exception,  he  would  know  noth- 
ing. He  often  meditated  on  suicide.  If  he  had  not  hoped  to 
visit  an  academy  of  art  in  three  quarters  of  a year,  he  would 
long  since  have  taken  his  life.  The  visit  to  the  institute  to 
which  he  belonged,  had  become  almost  impossible  to  him;  only 
this  week,  from  inner  compulsion,  he  had  shirked  two  days. 
His  condition  was  a fearful  one,  he  could  not  possibly  endure  it 
for  three  more  quarters.  Hence,  it  were  best  that  he  make  an 
end  of  his  life.  Nietzsche  had  completely  destroyed  the  hold  of 
religion  on  him,  all  life  values  had  since  disappeared. 

* Freud,  d.  zwei  Prlnzipien  d.  psych.  Geschehens.  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  6. 


390 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


The  youth  presented  a number  of  oil  paintings  and  drawings 
which  I,  in  accordance  with  good  analytic  procedure,  had  him  at 
once  exhibit  and  explain  to  me.  The  material  which  I give  in 
the  first  part  of  the  following  section  is  a part  of  the  results  of 
the  first  three  consultations ; in  the  fourth  session,  new  pictures 
indicated  the  metamorphosis  of  the  complexes. 

1.  Self-Portrait 

First  we  analyzed  the  self-portrait  which  had  been  painted  in 
two  or  three  hours  on  the  day  of  the  first  consultation. 

The  drawing,  in  the  original  50y2  cm.  x 64  cm.  in  size,  is  well 
painted,  except  that  the  dark,  threatening  facial  expression 
which  has  characterized  our  budding  artist  for  some  time,  is 
replaced  by  calm  resignation.* 

Our  attention  soon  turned  to  the  group  of  heads  hanging  on 
the  chain  at  the  right.  Franz  asserted  that  they  designated  no 
distinct  personalities  known  to  him.  Urged  to  give  only  his 
associations,  he  at  once  named  the  face  on  the  front,  his  father, 
the  one  on  the  left,  his  mother,  the  one  on  the  right,  his  younger 
sister.  All  three,  as  he  frankly  admitted,  are  hated  by  him. 

Later,  he  said : Only  the  upper  part  of  the  face  resembles  the 
father  somewhat.  Looked  at  closely,  only  the  shape  of  the  fore- 
head and  the  root  of  the  nose  correspond  exactly  to  the  same 
features  in  the  father’s  face.  (Not  distinct  in  the  picture.) 

The  nose  is  that  of  his  elder  brother,  who,  walking  in  the  steps 
of  the  severely  religious  mother,  leads  a quiet,  pious  life,  shut  off 
from  the  joys  of  the  world. 

The  wrinkles  from  the  wings  of  the  nose  to  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  belong  to  an  uncle  on  the  father’s  side  who  died  when 
Franz  was  five  years  old.  And  yet,  our  subject  still  remembers 
vividly  how  his  uncle  raged  in  his  epileptic  attacks.  The  eye- 
brows also  reminded  him  of  this  brother  of  his  father. 

The  curved  extremities  of  the  mouth  revivify  a brother  of  our 
artist,  likewise  epileptic,  who  died  six  years  ago. 

The  furrow  under  the  nose,  as  well  as  the  two  points  of  the 

* In  the  reproduction,  the  face  was  changed  so  far  as  was  prac- 
ticable without  disturbing  the  comprehension. 


SELF-PORTRAIT. 


[ Facep . 390 


ANALYSIS  OF  PORTRAIT 


391 


upper  lip  (indistinct  in  the  reproduction),  Franz  explained  as 
derived  from  the  hated  younger  sister,  who  also  had  the  corner 
of  the  mouth  portrayed  here. 

The  downy  beard  was  traced  back  to  some  disliked  teachers. 
The  facial  expression  as  a whole  showed  a cynical  smile  which 
our  artist  attached  to  himself. 

The  face  on  the  left  reminds  Franz  of  his  mother,  though 
strikingly  enough,  he  finds  none  of  her  characteristics  on  our 
pendant.  Only  the  hair  which  covers  the  vertex  and  encircles 
the  face  on  the  front,  might  correspond  to  that  of  the  mother. 
Somewhat  later,  the  lips  of  the  mother  are  also  added.  Our 
peculiar  portrait  artist  remembers  how  the  mother  constantly 
reasoned  with  him  when  he  began  to  read  Nietzsche,  as  well  as 
how  some  aunts  reproached  him  at  that  time.  Now  it  turns  out 
that  the  younger  sister  is  also  indicated  by  the  same  lips. 

The  nose  bears  a similarity  to  that  of  a gossiping  neighbor. 
Once  she  mocked  a boy  who  had  a speech  defect ; immediately 
after,  a similar  disturbance  appeared  in  her  own  child. 

The  whole  face  is  deathly  pale.  The  head  on  the  right  is 
associated  with  the  hated  sister.  The  hair  over  the  frontal 
area  comes  to  a point.  The  lower  locks  belong  to  a contentious, 
untidy  maid,  who,  in  spite  of  her  church  going,  lived  immorally 
and  because  of  an  illegitimate  child,  had  to  marry.  The  mouth 
also  came  from  her. 

The  hated  younger  sister  resembles  this  maid  in  so  far  that 
she  is  likewise  distinguished  by  sensuality,  likes  to  quarrel  and 
gossip  although  she  affects  piety. 

The  neck  of  the  figure  bears  an  ornament  which  is  recognized 
as  a boy’s  lace  collar.  The  boy  struck  Franz  on  the  head  with  a 
hatchet  while  framing  a bench.  Further,  the  neck  indicates 
the  goitres  of  several  elderly  relatives. 

So  far,  we  have  collected  only  the  associations  of  our  artist 
and  have  allowed  none  of  our  surmises  to  come  to  expression. 
The  interpretation  of  our  group  is  now  easy  for  every  one  who 
has  tested  empirically  the  theory  of  psychoanalysis : Franz  has 
cleverly  put  to  death  a number  of  hated  persons,  first  of  all,  his 
father,  mother  and  a sister,  by  (1)  beheading,  (2)  nanging,  (3) 


392 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


spitting  (a  spit  runs  through  all  the  heads)  and  (4)  crucifying 
them  (the  cross  over  the  heads  is  interpreted  expressly  as  refer- 
ence to  the  piety  or  hypocritical  piousness  of  the  relatives). 
Two  brothers,  an  uncle,  a bad  neighbor  and  a comrade  fall 
victims  to  the  massacre  or  at  least  the  father  shall  find  the  end 
of  the  two  epileptics. 

Besides  this  sadistic  procedure,  all  kinds  of  little  mean- 
nesses come  to  expression. 

We  turn  now  to  the  ornament  which  hangs  down  from  the 
center  of  the  upper  border.  Again  we  hold  the  object  before 
Franz,  though  he  may  find  it  tedious,  and  collect  his  associa- 
tions. 

In  front,  we  see  a heart  which  the  artist  describes  as  hard, 
ironlike,  wounded.  It  is  indented  and  looks  as  if  it  would  tilt 
forward  so  that  one  might  see  what  is  behind  it.  It  must  belong 
to  the  father. 

At  the  right,  a second  heart  leans  against  the  figure.  “One 
can  consider  it  as  a withered  breast  devoid  of  love.”  The 
mother  is  indicated  thereby. 

Between  the  two  parts  of  the  ornament,  a strange  creation  is 
inserted  which  Franz  cannot  interpret.  It  seems  to  him,  never- 
theless, that  a wonderfully  beautiful  girl  dwells  opposite  it. 
The  association  is  inexplicable  to  him.  The  bow  toward  the 
left,  he  suddenly  interprets  as  knee ; then  only  does  he  discover 
that  he  drew  the  girl  inverted,  standing  on  her  head.  The 
reader  sees  also  at  once  that  the  ordinary  and  the  gravid  womb 
is  plainly  shown,  at  least  they  come  into  Franz ’s  mind. 

The  whole  thing  would  represent  a dragon. 

The  explanation  runs  thus:  On  the  hard-hearted  father, 
leans  the  mother,  deficient  in  love.  Both  have  a secret  in  com- 
mon that  is  just  unfolding.  Into  view  comes  the  naked  mother 
as  girl  and  gravid  woman.  The  (Edipus  complex  which  is 
seldom  absent  in  a psychoneurosis,  may  be  clearly  recognized : 
Franz  is  fiercely  jealous  of  his  father.  In  the  love  for  the 
mother,  so  plainly  colored  with  incest,  lies  the  foundation  of  his 
neurosis.  This  reprehensible  inclination  is  the  dragon  which 
threatens  to  devour  him. 


ANALYSIS  OF  PORTRAIT 


393 


Finally,  the  self-portrait  came  to  discussion.  The  costume 
is  that  of  a monk.  Franz  long  cherished  the  wish  to  become  a 
Buddhist  monk.  He  imagined  it  as  something  “immense”  to 
enter  a cloister  or  to  be  merged  into  nothing.  The  monastic 
garb  in  which  the  artist  disguises  himself,  is  also  that  of  the 
parricide  in  Schiller’s  “Tell.”  What  that  name  signifies, 
Franz  is  unwilling  to  know  for  some  time,  which  seems  to  him 
“curious.”  Suddenly  he  remembers  that  parricide  is  called 
“father-murder.” 

The  hand  is  that  of  one  imploring  mercy.  The  model  is  the 
publican  who  beat  his  breast,  praying:  “God  be  merciful  to 
me  a sinner.”  (Luke,  xvi.) 

The  little  finger  is  drawn  incorrectly.  It  occurs  to  Franz 
that  the  mistake  aids  in  giving  the  hand  the  form  of  a male 
genital  organ  which  is  about  to  relax  after  masturbation. 

The  bit  of  iron  dependent  from  the  chain  penetrates  the  head 
of  the  artist  and  puts  him  in  the  same  position  as  the  members 
of  the  family  killed  in  four  ways. 

The  meaning  of  the  portrait  may  be  given  in  the  following 
sentence : I confess  repentantly  the  guilt  which  I have  brought 
upon  myself  as  murderer  of  my  father  and  relatives,  as  well  as 
masturbator,  implore  mercy  and  will  expiate  my  sins  by  my 
execution  or  as  Buddhist  monk  sink  into  nothing. 

Thus  the  three  chief  points  in  the  drawing  contain: 

1.  Guilt  (murder  of  relatives,  strengthened  by  masturbation)  ; 

2.  Cause  (incestuous  love  for  the  mother,  hate  for  the  father 
and  onanism)  ; 3.  Expiation. 

If  one  would  summarize  the  essential  content  of  our  picture 
in  a sentence,  after  the  manner  of  a dream,  one  might  say: 
Since  I am  consumed  in  a criminal,  threatening  love  for  the 
mother  and  wash  a violent  end  for  my  nearest  relatives,  I 
repentantly  confess  myself  worthy  of  death  and  will  expiate 
my  crimes  by  flight  into  the  nothingness  of  the  cloister. 

A month  later,  we  analyzed  the  recent  instigators  of  the 
portrait.  Five  days  before  the  drawing,  Franz  visited  an  art- 
exhibition  with  his  father  and  the  hated  sister.  Before  the 
pictures  of  Bocklin  and  Segantini,  he  became  angry  since  he 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


394> 

was  thinking  of  his  bad  relation  to  his  parents.  Bitter  and 
with  the  intention  of  inflicting  injury,  he  said  before  the  father 
that  it  was  a shame  that  they  first  let  an  artist  be  almost  ruined 
and  then  admired  his  paintings. 

As  he  looked  at  himself  in  the  glass  next  morning  at  eight 
o ’clock,  as  he  was  making  his  toilette,  the  furrows  running  from 
the  root  of  the  nose  straight  over  the  forehead  struck  him. 
Even  earlier,  when  he  was  still  a boy,  it  occurred  to  him  that  his 
father  drew  these  lines  when  he  was  filled  with  trouble  and  sor- 
row over  his  son.  Now  he  asked  himself  what  would  the  father 
say  if  he  knew  that  his  child  of  sorrows  played  truant.  Two 
hours  later,  the  inspiration  suddenly  came  over  our  artist. 
He  hastened  immediately  to  buy  a pad  of  paper  and  set  to  work. 
One  sees  how  the  lines  of  care  on  the  father ’s  face  are  strongly 
emphasized.  The  sympathy  striving  for  expression  is  dis- 
charged by  the  negative  father-complex  by  means  of  a sadistic 
elaboration.  The  wrinkles  on  his  own  brow  may  represent  a 
justification  of  the  cruel  deed:  “You  have  already  caused  me 
much  more  sorrow  than  I you!” 

Thus,  this  artistic  conception  displays,  exactly  like  the  dream, 
a recent  root,  while  the  complex  plainly  goes  back  to  earliest 
childhood  when  the  strictness  of  the  otherwise  excellent  father 
influenced  the  CEdipus  attitude  for  the  worse. 

2.  Requiem 

This  gloomy  oil  painting  (45  cm.  x37  cm.)  was  done  some 
seven  to  eight  months  before.  The  sketch  on  the  ground  of  ar- 
tistic intuition  was  dashed  off  in  an  hour,  the  whole  uncom- 
monly effective  picture  took  only  eight  hours.  Franz  remem- 
bered that  while  painting  it,  he  often  wished  to  disappear  in 
the  river  which  rushed  past  his  home  town  * as  at  the  time 
when  domestic  strife  tormented  him.  Further,  he  was 
angered  because  they  made  so  much  of  Christianity  while  his 
prayers  remained  unheard.  He  wished  himself  buried  with 
Christianity.  Then,  however,  he  heard  beautiful  organ  tones 
floating  from  the  chapel  he  had  just  painted.  , 

* It  occurs  also  in  picture  number  1. 


REQUIEM 


[Face  p.  394 


ANALYSIS  OF  PICTURE 


895 


The  chapel  makes  Franz  think  that  the  father  might  be 
present.  Where,  he  does  not  know  how  to  say.  Still,  the 
round  window  brings  to  his  mind  the  eye  of  God  surrounded  by 
a triangle  on  Albrecht  Diirer’s  etching  “The  Holy  Family  in 
Egypt.”  Further,  it  reminds  him  of  one-eyed  Wotan,  as  well 
as  of  Polyphemus  who  swallowed  the  companions  of  Odysseus 
in  his  cavern  and  sought  to  kill  with  rocks  Odysseus  fleeing 
from  the  cave  into  water.  This  eye  is  also  that  of  his  own 
father  who  looks  down  gloomily  upon  his  son. 

The  two  cypress  trees  recall  his  two  brothers,  the  two  round 
trees,  his  sisters,  of  whom,  one,  the  one  whom  we  met  in  the 
preceding  picture,  was  boasting  how  good  a daughter  she  was, 
how  she  made  herself  useful  to  the  parents,  while  she  sought  to 
get  as  many  benefits  as  possible  from  them ; the  elder,  nobler 
sister,  however,  corresponding  to  the  tree  on  the  right,  does  not 
behave  so  strikingly.  The  officiousness  of  the  hated  sister  is 
expressed  in  the  position  of  the  left  tree. 

The  chapel  next  turns  out  to  be  the  chapel  of  an  institution 
for  the  incurable  insane.  The  institution  building  had  pre- 
viously been  a cloister.  There,  a gifted  artist  lived,  who,  like 
Franz,  painted  and  wrote  poetry,  until  he  was  brought  to  this 
institution.  And  now,  our  subject  confesses  his  burning  desire 
to  visit  this  man  and  be  himself  interned  for  life  as  insane. 
For  hours  at  a time,  the  youth  sat  before  the  little  church  and 
dreamed  of  the  happiness  of  being  freed  from  all  care  in  the 
adjacent  asylum  and  continuing  his  splendid  phantasies.  Re- 
peatedly, after  some  hours  of  day-dreaming,  he  went  to  distant 
places.  The  pointed  church  of  the  insane  asylum  is  not  on  an 
island.  The  latter  reminds  of  the  castle  Wasserstelz  in  Gott- 
fried Keller’s  “Hadlaub.”  The  young  troubadour  was  con- 
cealed in  the  castle  so  that  he  would  not  be  discovered  by  the 
recruiting  Count  of  Rapperswyl.  His  beloved  came  to  Had- 
laub, brought  him  an  infant  and  became  his  wife.  This  story 
led  Franz  to  a beautiful  girl  of  his  home  town  who  lived  in  an 
“exceedingly  quiet”  house  off  the  street  and  pleased  the  father 
very  well.  Thus,  Franz  hoped  as  in  Keller’s  novel,  to  get  the 
better  of  his  father. 


396 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


The  interior  of  the  chapel  is  brightly  illuminated.  Wonder- 
ful music  peals  forth.  Again,  strangely  enough,  the  pretty 
neighbor  comes  into  Franz’s  mind,  who  had  hidden  himself 
behind  the  hearts  (in  previous  picture)  of  the  parents,  as  repre- 
sentation of  the  mother.  Then  our  subject  jumps  to  the  Christ- 
mas festivals  which  he  celebrated  at  home  as  a child.  All  the 
interest  which  he  has  in  the  picture,  is  concentrated  on  the  light 
which  streams  from  the  church  upon  the  dead.  In  connection 
with  this,  Franz  imagines  that  his  elder  brother  must  still  hide 
in  the  church.  Finally,  it  occurs  to  him  that  he  has  always 
thought  the  same  about  the  mother.  At  present,  he  has  no  love 
for  the  mother. 

The  two  crucifixes  are  the  brothers ; the  posts  stick  slantingly 
in  the  earth.  Soon  they  will  fall.  The  poplars  (brothers)  do 
not  touch  the  church  (mother)  although  they  incline  toward  it 
(inartistically  symmetrical). 

The  corpse,  naturally  Franz  himself,  lies  in  front  of  the 
island  with  outstretched  arms  like  the  true  Christ,  much  too 
large  for  the  perspective. 

The  three  stars  (circles)  recall  to  mind  again  father,  mother 
and  hated  sister  (they  are  indistinct  in  the  reproduction). 

By  way  of  explanation,  it  should  be  said  that  the  father  is 
trustee  of  the  church  (president  of  the  church  association)  and 
that  Franz  is  quite  familiar  with  the  expression,  “Mother 
Church.” 

The  oil-painting  expresses  the  death-wish  and  its  origin  in 
the  boy’s  attitude  toward  his  family.  Franz  wishes  to  die  and 
as  corpse  to  draw  to  himself  the  mother  love  denied  him  in  life. 
The  other  masochistic,  likewise  pleasurably  toned,  wish,  points 
to  his  living  henceforth  entirely  in  the  church  ( = mother). 
The  parallel  longing  for  the  insane  asylum  seems  thus  to  be  a 
desire  for  the  mother-womb.  In  both  places,  he  is  hidden, 
escaped  from  reality,  in  a certain  sense,  dead. 

This  phantasy  corresponds  on  one  hand  to  active  cruelty,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  self-aggrandisement.  In  the  first  respect,  we 
notice  the  death-wish  against  the  father,  mother  and  younger 
sister  (the  three  stars),  the  identification  of  the  father  with 


ANALYSIS  OF  PICTURE 


397 


Polyphemus,  in  whom,  Odysseus  (Franz),  before  swimming 
away,  bored  out  his  one  eye,  the  representation  of  the  brother 
destined  for  downfall,  the  ridicule  of  the  officious  sister.  A 
tendency  to  grandiosity  is  suggested  in  the  desire  to  be  like  the 
gifted  insane  patient,  to  supplant  his  father  in  the  esteem 
of  the  village  and  especially  to  be  discovered  and  mourned  by 
the  mother  as  the  great,  true,  crucified  savior  beside  the  false 
messiahs,  the  brothers. 

As  in  the  self-portrait,  the  artist  compares  himself  to  the 
father  by  wrinkled  brow,  so  here,  there  is  brought  to  attention 
a wish-eomparison  which  is  not  painted.  During  the  drawing, 
Franz  hears  wonderful  music  proceeding  from  the  church. 
The  (hysterical  or  catatonic)  mother  hallucinated  similar 
music,  formerly  often,  now  occasionally. 

One  notices  the  religious  sublimation  of  the  death-wish  and 
the  phantasies  directed  toward  the  relatives  of  the  family. 

Some  weeks  after  the  “Requiem,”  Franz  did  a very  pretty 
drawing,  to  which  he  gave  the  significant  title,  “Let  the  Dead 
bury  their  Dead.”  A drowned  youth  is  floating  near  the  bank 
of  a stream  lined  by  poplars.  A veiled  woman  is  holding  her 
hands  over  the  dead  body  as  if  blessing  it.  The  artist  has  no 
difficulty  in  recognizing  himself  and  mother  in  the  two  figures ; 
the  mother  is  characterized  in  the  title  as  spiritually  dead. 
Later,  the  anger  advances  even  to  wishing  the  death  of  the  erotic 
object  passionately  loved  in  secret.  In  the  Aare  which  flows  by 
his  home  village,  Franz  has  long  wished  to  go  to  sleep.  Every 
swimming  bath  becomes  a death  orgy.  The  river  becomes  a 
mother  symbol  and  assumes  the  role  which  is  played  in  the 
other  paintings  by  mother-womb,  cave,  insane  asylum  and 
cloister  (compare  Ibsen:  “Die  Frau  vom  Meere”  [The  Woman 
of  the  Sea] ). 


3.  Madness 

Pen  and  ink  drawing,  3614  cm.  x 26  cm.,  drawn  five  months 
before  the  analysis. 

The  picture  as  a whole  reminds  Franz  of  the  magnitude,  the 
violence  of  madness,  of  his  visit  to  the  insane  asylum,  in  which 


398 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


he  revelled  in  the  sight  of  the  patients,  especially  their  eyes. 
Opposed  to  the  powerful  wish  to  be  insane,  is  the  clear  insight 
into  the  absurdity  and  inferiority  of  the  desire. 

The  eyes  of  the  figure  first  arrest  the  attention.  They  betray 
the  insanity,  but  also  remind  the  patient  of  his  own  eyes  as 
they  look  in  moments  of  enthusiasm. 

The  mouth  shows  his  own  under  lip.  The  reason  for  this 
substitution,  I cannot  give.  The  creases  at  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  are  those  of  an  uncle,  with  whose  cane,  the  patient  was 
whipped  because  he  would  not  eat  the  oat  soup.  On  that  oc- 
casion, he  called  out  to  his  father:  “Strike  me  dead!” 

The  finger  under  the  chin  is  at  once  named  as  sexual  member 
which  is  trying  to  get  to  the  lips.  Franz  is  thinking  of  an  act 
of  masturbation.  To  the  same  gain  of  pleasure,  lead  the  ser- 
pents which  at  the  same  time  express  something  devilish. 

To  the  weeping  woman,  Franz  associates  first  himself  who  is 
complaining,  then  the  cemetery  which  is  near  his  parents’ 
house,  then  the  sister  and  the  “wonderfully  beautiful  chapel 
of  the  insane  asylum,  thus  the  mother.  ’ ’ 

The  hand  is  abnormally  large.  It  holds  and  controls  all  the 
threads  which  run  over  the  curtain  (the  world).  It  can  press 
all  together.  It  belongs  to  Franz. 

The  whirling  lines  represent  “downward  flowing  dirt  from 
which  strength  proceeds  so  that  all  is  illuminated.”  Franz 
sees  himself  and  his  mother  in  the  midst  of  the  same  pleasant 
filth  of  improper  sexual  activity. 

The  perpendicular,  snake-like  figures,  drawn  from  below  up- 
ward, are  rising  from  unknown  dark  filth,  attracted  by-  the 
light.  (I  cannot  interpret  them  with  certainty.  They  are 
caused  by  the  folds  of  the  curtain.  Perhaps  they  refer  to  the 
sexual  instincts  which,  set  free  by  open  sexual  pleasure  (see 
below)  ascend  from  their  hiding  place). 

The  inscription,  “I  know,”  relates  to  the  insight  into  the 
secret  of  his  own  condition. 

History  of  the  picture. 

The  picture  was  drawn  at  the  residence  of  an  elderly  gentle- 
man who  overwhelmed  Franz  with  attentions,  invited  him  on 


MADNESS 


[ Face  p . 398 


RESULTS  OF  ANALYSIS  OF  PICTURES  399 


long  journeys  and  promised  to  pay  the  expense  of  his  academic 
education.  Shortly  before  the  sketch  was  made,  our  subject 
made  the  discovery  that  the  man  was  homosexual  and  had  bad 
intentions.  Upon  leaving  the  room,  as  the  youth  was  going  in 
advance,  the  man  seized  him  and  pressed  himself  against  him. 
This  repelled  the  surprised  youth  who  decided  to  separate  from 
the  old  sinner.  At  the  table  of  the  homosexual,  he  began  to 
draw  the  picture  without  knowing  what  would  come  of  it; 
usually  his  inspirations  appeared  to  him  like  a shot,  clearly 
defined. 

Interpretation. 

Disgusted  by  the  homosexual  attack,  Franz  experienced  the 
most  intense  introversion.  Dementia  praecox  is  excellently 
symbolized  by  his  drawing : The  patient  withdraws  from  the 
outer  world  behind  his  curtain,  revels  in  the  wildest  auto- 
eroticism (masturbation  and  masochistic  pleasure  in  the  suf- 
fering of  the  mother)  and  incest,  as  the  all-wise  one  who 
(paranoiacally)  controls  the  destiny  of  the  world  with  master- 
ful hand.  Franz  states  that  such  trains  of  thought  have  re- 
peatedly filled  his  mind,  though  not  during  the  composition  of 
the  sketch. 

Space  forbids  reproducing  here  the  whole  analysis  which 
dealt  almost  exclusively  with  drawings  and  poems,  as  well  as 
(quite  incidentally)  with  the  life  condition  of  the  youth  who 
was  plainly  gravely  threatened  with  insanity.*  Also  the  gain 
for  the  psychology  of  art  cannot,  be  presented  here.  It  may 
only  be  pointed  out  in  this  regard  that  the  introverted  one, 
informed  of  the  seat  of  his  trouble,  immediately  sought  with 
astounding  energy  to  free  himself  from  it.  The  subsequent 
pictures  showed  with  great  clearness  the  different  steps  in  the 
struggle.  The  previous  motives  were  again  taken  up  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  the  remolding  of  complexes  to  be  discussed 
later  (Chapter  17,  II)  and  elaborated  in  an  opposite,  life- 
giving  sense  until  finally  the  rebirth  of  the  rescued  hero  cele- 
brated the  triumph  with  splendid  decision.  The  very  inde- 

* It  is  published  in  the  second  year  of  the  journal,  “Imago”  (1913) 
under  the  title:  “Die  Entstehung  der  kiinstler.  Inspiration.” 


400 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


pendent  youth  felt  healthy  and  happy  but  from  that  time  on, 
would  hear  nothing  of  further  analysis.  When,  some  months 
later,  external  relations  of  life  shaped  themselves  unfavorably, 
his  mood  suffered  a clouding,  which,  however,  occasioned  no 
relapse  into  the  earlier  introversion.  With  great  energy,  the 
young  artist  solved  his  life  problem,  got  himself  into  the  long 
desired  position  and  has  since  worked  industriously  and  well 
in  the  best  of  health  and  in  good  relations  to  his  parents.  His 
whole  attitude  toward  life  underwent  an  entire  change. 
Whether  the  cure  of  the  sorely  threatened  individual  is  a defi- 
nite one,  the  future  will  show.  After  many  experiences,  there 
has  been  to  date  no  occasion  for  fear.  The  analysis  of  draw- 
ings which  were  made  unintentionally,  as  for  example,  during 
a lesson  or  consultation,  is  interesting. 

10.  Poetry 

This  section  also  will  interest  the  educator.  The  pedagogue 
experienced  in  psychoanalysis  can  draw  many  valuable  con- 
clusions concerning  the  mental  status  of  his  pupils  from  their 
essays.  Even  in  play  there  is  a bit  of  poetry  which  betrays 
the  repressed  instinct.* 

That  the  greatest  poetry  comes  forth  from  hidden  depths  of 
the  mind,  has  already  been  mentioned  in  Schiller’s  words 
(page  8).  Its  automatic  character  is,  at  least  in  regard  to 
the  great  conception,  even  though  not  in  its  later  elaboration, 
indisputable.  Goethe  confesses:  “Every  productivity  of  the 
highest  kind,  every  great  thought  which  brings  fruits  and  has 
results,  is  in  no  one ’s  power  and  is  elevated  above  all  power  . . . 
it  is  related  to  the  demoniacal  power>  which,  endowed  with 
superior  force,  does  with  a man  what  it  wills,  and  to  which  he 
yields  unconsciously ,t  while  he  thinks  he  is  acting  on  his  own 
initiative.  ’ ’ % Goethe  relates  that  he  wrote  down  most  of  his. 
poems  at  night  as  in  a dream ; he  sprang  out  of  bed  to  his  desk 

* Freud,  Der  Dichter  u.  d.  Phantasieren.  Kl.  Schr.  II,  p.  197  ff. 

t Italicised  by  me. 

t Cited  by  S.  Kovacs,  Introjektion,  Projektion  und  Einfuhlung.  Zbl. 
II,  263.  Rank,  Inzest-Motiv ; p.  475. 


POETS  AND  UNCONSCIOUS  COMPLEXES  401 


and  without  pushing  the  sheet  of  paper  straight,  wrote  the 
poem  from  beginning  to  end,  diagonally,  for  which  purpose  he 
used  a pencil  in  order  not  to  be  awakened  by  the  pen.*  It  is 
certain  that  Schiller  was  found  lying  on  the  floor  twitching 
convulsively  as  he  was  busy  with  the  scene  between  Eboli  and 
the  prince,  t Similar  half -pathological  symptoms  are  reported 
of  Goethe,  Kleist,  Turgenieff  and  A.  de  Musset.! 

The  content  of  the  poetic  production  also  proves  to  be  a 
manifestation.  In  the  hero,  we  recognize,  often  without  dif- 
ficulty, the  poet  himself:  Goethe  is  the  original  of  Tasso  and 
Antonio,  Clavigo  and  Carlos;  he  lurks  in  Faust  and  Mephis- 
topheles,  both  are  personified  libido  characteristics.  Schiller 
treats  in  the  majority  of  his  great  dramas,  in  the  Raubern,  in 
Fiesko,  in  Don  Carlos,  in  Kabale  und  Liebe,  in  Wallenstein,  in 
Tell,  of  the  struggle  with  the  father,  usually  in  the  form  of  a 
father-substitute,  because  he  himself  suffered  under  a father- 
complex.  ||  Grillparzer  describes  in  many  works  the  man 
divided  between  two  women,  Richard  Wagner,  the  woman 
divided  between  two  men  passing  over  to  the  new-comer,  be- 
cause both  authors  thereby  expressed  their  own  erotic  situa- 
tions: Grillparzer  remained  for  a lifetime  devoted  to  the 
Frohlich  sisters,  of  whom  he  was  engaged  to  Kathi  to  the  end 
of  his  life;  he  could  marry  neither  from  inner  reasons. j[ 
Wagner  has  Senta  go  over  to  the  Dutchman,  Elizabeth  to  Tann- 
hauser,  Sieglinde  to  Sigmund,  Isolde  to  Tristan,  Eva  to  Stolz- 
ing,  Briinhilde  to  Siegfried,  because  he  himself  desired  the  love 
which  prejudiced  a third  person  (Mathilde  Wesendonk, 
Kosima  von  Biilow).  This  tendency,  on  the  other  hand,  may 
be  derived,  as  Max  Graf  § probably  did,  from  the  fact  that 
Wagner,  who  lost  his  father  when  six  months  old  and  was  pas- 
sionately fond  of  the  stepfather  whom  he  soon  gained,  the 
comedian  Geyer,  thought  of  the  wished-for  possibility  that  he 

* Stekel,  Diehtung  und  Neurose,  p.  3. 

t Rank,  Inzest-Motiv,  p.  476. 

t Same,  p.  477. 

||  Same,  p.  87  ff. 

f Like  Goethe  he  remained  attached  to  his  mother  (see  above  p.  120). 

§ Graf,  Rich.  Wagner  im  “fliegenden  Hollander,”  p.  28  ff. 


402 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


might  be  a child  of  Geyer.  Ibsen’s  constant  handling  of  the 
marriage  problem  may  be  elucidated  from  the  history  of  the 
poet’s  marital  conditions.*  Konrad  Ferdinand  Meyer  writes: 
“I  use  the  form  of  historical  novel  simply  and  solely  in  order 
to  embody  in  it  my  personal  experiences  and  emotions,  . . . 
because  it  gives  me  a better  disguise.  In  all  persons  of  Pes- 
cara, even  in  the  common  Morone,  there  is  something  of  K.  F. 
Meyer.”  f 

The  analysis  has  also  attacked  the  psychological  riddle  of 
poetic  art.  I mention  the  problem  of  Hamlet  because  of  its 
high  pedagogical  importance.  Freud  says  in  one  place  that 
Hamlet  in  no  way  represents  the  type  of  the  dreamer  made  ill 
by  the  specters  of  his  thought  for  we  see  the  prince  act  vigor- 
ously twice  (killing  of  Polonius  and  the  two  courtiers). 
Rather,  Hamlet  who  is  capable  of  doing  everything  else,  can- 
not accomplish  his  revenge  on  the  murderer  and  successor  of  his 
father  because  he  committed  the  same  crimes  in  his  phantasies 
and  so  covered  himself  with  guilt.!  The  English  psychiatrist, 
Prof.  Jones,  has  elaborated  ||  this  argument  in  a monograph 
which  excites  the  delight  of  the  historians  of  literature  by  its 
profoundness  and  lucidity ; Otto  Rank  illuminates  the  problem 
in  its  connection  with  other  creations  of  Shakespeare.^  The 
judgment  of  these  works  will  only  be  given  for  certain  by  the 
analysis  of  living  Hamlets,  of  whom  the  educator,  unfortu- 
nately, knows  not  a few. 

The  reader  will  find  an  enormously  extensive  and  most  inter- 
esting material  in  the  monumental  work  of  Otto  Rank : ‘ ‘ Das 

Inzest-Motiv  in  Dichtung  und  Sage,  ’ ’ ( Elements  of  a Psychol- 
ogy of  Poetic  Creation;  1912). 

With  the  many  problems  of  the  psychology  of  art,  the  solv- 
ing of  which  is  rendered  possible  by  psychoanalysis,  we  do  not 
have  to  concern  ourselves.  Yet  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be 
pointed  out  in  this  connection  that  poetry,  like  every  manifesta- 

* Same,  p.  27. 

t A.  Frey,  K.  F.  Meyer,  Stuttgart,  1900,  p.  284. 

X Freud,  Traumdeutung,  p.  192  f. 

||  Jones,  D.  Problem  d.  Hamlet  u.  d.  Odipus-Komplex. 

i Rank,  Inzest-Motiv,  pp.  45  ff,  204-233. 


POETIC  CREATION  AND  THE  UNCONSCIOUS  403 


tion,  represents  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  artist  (painter, 
author,  poet,  etc.)  to  free  himself  from  the  demands  of  his 
complexes.  Goethe  kills  himself  as  Werther  and  thereby 
guards  himself  against  suicide.  Complete  happiness,  absolute 
salvation  for  a free  life  is  seldom  really  attained  by  the  poet. 
He  remains  a tragic  hero.  Schiller  testifies:  “How  feeble 
still  is  the  highest  grandeur  of  a poet  against  the  thought  to 
live  happy.  ’ ’ Richard  W agner  makes  the  shocking  confession : 
“Dear  friend!  Some  thoughts  regarding  art  often  come  over 
me  now  and  I cannot  usually  avoid  finding  that  if  we  had  life, 
we  would  have  needed  no  art.  Art  begins  just  at  the  point 
where  life  ceases ; where  nothing  more  is  present,  there  we  call 
in  the  art : I wished.  I do  not  understand  at  all  how  a truly 
happy  person  can  come  to  the  thought : only  in  life  can  one 
create  art, — is  our  art  not  for  the  rest  merely  a confession  of 
our  impotence?”*  Another  time,  he  says:  “Yes,  to  he  al- 
ways in  strife,  never  to  attain  to  complete  calmness  of  soul,  to  be 
always  baited,  enticed  and  repulsed,  that  is  really  the  ever 
bubbling  life  process,  out  of  which  the  artist ’s  inspiration  bursts 
forth  like  a flower  of  despair.  ’ ’ f 

Although  the  poetic  creation  is  a manifestation,  the  artist 
is  not,  as  Stekel  asserts,  a neurotic.  Rank  rightly  says  “that 
the  artist’s  achievement,  which  acts  both  as  a relief  for  him  and 
at  the  same  time  contributes  something  of  great  value  to  society, 
is  always  so  sharply  differentiated  from  the  incapacity  for 
achievement  of  the  neurotic  that  even  the  most  intimate  rela- 
tionship in  the  prerequisite  conditions  cannot  obliterate  these 
plainly  visible  distinctions.  ’ ’ £ 

I conclude  with  two  quotations  from  Hebbel  who  here  again 
shows  himself  to  he  a thorough  student  of  humanity:  In  the 
passage  quoted  at  length  on  page  116,  where  the  contribution 
of  the  unconscious  to  artistic  creation,  the  infantilism,  the  re- 
gression, and  the  repression  are  so  well  pictured,  the  poet  la- 
ments the  fact  that  “even  intelligent  men  do  not  cease  from 

* Rank,  p.  482. 

f Same,  p.  482. 

j Same,  p.  479. 


404 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


quarreling  with  the  poet  over  his  choice  of  material,  as  they 
call  it,  and  thereby  show  that  they  always  conceive  of  the 
artistic  creation,  the  first  stage  of  which,  the  conception,  lies 
deep  below  consciousness  and  at  times  recedes  to  the  dimmest 
distance  of  childhood  (regression),  as  a making,  even  though  it 
be  a noble  one.”*  The  other  quotation  is:  “My  idea  that 
dream  and  poetry  are  identical  finds  ever  new  confirmation.”  t 

11.  The  Moral  Manifestations 

The  psychoanalytic  investigations  concerning  the  moral  con- 
sciousness and  its  scientific  regulation  are  unfortunately  not 
yet  far  enough  advanced  to  allow  us  to  devote  a long  section  to 
them.  Only  two  investigations  are  at  hand:  my  analyses  of 
hate  and  reconciliation  which  appeared  in  1910,  furnished  the 
proof  that  hate,  by  one-sided  direction  and  fixation  of  interest, 
impoverishes  the  personality,  destroys  the  mental  power  by 
growing  dependence  upon  dark  compulsion,  cripples  the  will, 
weakens  the  moral  energy  by  volatilization  into  autistic  dreams, 
strengthens  sadism  and  masochism  and  isolates  the  individual. 
Reconciliation,  on  the  other  hand,  removes  all  these  injurious 
influences  and  creates  sublimation.!  Evil  proves  thereby  to  be 
biologically  useless,  good  to  be  the  healthy  condition.  Natur- 
ally, this  individualistic  mode  of  consideration  is  not  the  only 
one  which  is  ethically  demanded.  Into  consideration  there 
comes  that  which  is  hygienically  approved  for  the  community, 
to  which  the  individual  life  has  under  certain  circumstances,  to 
be  sacrificed. 

In  the  year  1912,  there  appeared  an  important  investigation 
by  Karl  Fortmiiller,  entitled  “ Psycnoanalyse  und  Ethik.”  || 
Starting  from  Adler’s  fundamental  hypothesis,  he  seeks  to 
explain  the  ethical  imperative  as  a defence  process  erected 

* Hebbel,  Preface  to  “Maria  Magdalena,”  cited  by  Rank,  Inzestm 
p.  125. 

t Hebbel,  Tagebiicher,  June  3,  1847,  cited  by  Stekel,  Dicbtung  und 
Neurose,  p.  2. 

+ Pfister,  Hass  und  Versohnung,  p.  46  f. 

||  K.  Fortmiiller,  Pea.  u.  Ethik.  Eine  vorlaufige  Untersuchung, 
Munich,  1912. 


PSYCHOANALYSIS  AND  ETHICS 


405 


against  the  feeling  of  inferiority  (Minderwertigkeitgefiihl). 
The  demands  made  upon  the  child  for  order  and  subordination 
strengthen  in  him  the  feeling  of  inferiority  which  is  now  re- 
acted not  only  in  defiance  and  passive  submission  but  also  by 
the  acceptance  of  that  external  command  into  his  own  will. 
The  feeling  of  inferiority  is  thereby  overcompensated,  however, 
in  that  this  inner  imperative  is  expected  of  everyone  as  a moral 
command.  A tendency  toward  assurance  is  also  manifested  by 
the  moral  consciousness  to  the  extent  that  the  imposed  prohi- 
bitions form  a defence  against  the  covetous  instincts  and  their 
dangers. 

It  seems  to  me  that  Fortmiiller  has  developed  his  ideas,  which 
are  interesting  and  may  be  correct  for  certain  cases,  in  a one- 
sided manner.  When  the  father  gives  an  eight  months-old 
child  a little  command,  it  may  perhaps  playfully  acknowledge 
his  greatness,  yet  the  reaction  is  certainly  not  primarily  a 
heightened  feeling  of  inferiority  but  one  of  joy.  And  thus  are 
many,  even  if  not  all,  moral  emotions,  both  admonishing  and 
warning,  aroused  on  the  path  of  pleasure  and  indeed  so  that 
the  feeling  of  greatness,  the  pride,  is  strengthened.  Still, 
Fortmiiller  indicates  in  very  commendable  manner  dangers  in 
the  moral  education. 

Psychoanalysis  has  led  to  a number  of  moral  facts  without 
intending  to  deal  with  ethical  considerations,  by  the  duty  of 
healing  the  sick.  We  spoke  of  lying,  stealing,  love  and  hate, 
Don  Juanism  caused  by  complexes.  We  are  not  dealing  merely 
with  pathological  processes. 

I want  to  point  out  here  only  one  phenomenon  especially  im- 
portant for  pedagogy,  by  which,  the  whole  direction  of  life,  the 
greatest  part  of  the  happiness  of  life  or  of  the  tragedy  of  life 
is  determined.  I mean  the  plan  of  life  conditioned  upon  com- 
plexes regarding  its  moral  character.  We  have  already  dis- 
cussed the  life  tendency  in  general  on  page  385.  We  have  often 
seen  the  whole  life  devoted  to  the  service  of  a completely  un- 
conscious tendency.  We  heard  of  the  place-seeker  who  elabor- 
ated for  a lifetime  an  infantile  inferiority  complex  and  wished 
to  compel  from  humanity  the  recognition  which  his  father  had 


406 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


denied  him  (110)  ; of  the  Don  Juan  who  sought  unknowingly 
to  gratify  his  high  emotional  needs  in  his  erring  love  and 
thereby  exposed  his  own  life  and  the  lives  of  others  to  the  great- 
est dangers  and  hardships  (329).  We  called  attention  to  the 
avaricious,  over-exact,  analerotic  individual,  totally  incapable 
of  conjugal  love  (200),  to  the  homosexual  individual  and  his 
peculiar  life  development  (202),  to  the  choice  of  vocation  de- 
termined by  complexes  (326),  to  the  unlucky  fellow  (110),  to 
the  quarrelsome  individual  (246),  to  the  fundamental  themes 
of  the  poets  (parricide  in  Schiller,  the  woman  between  two  men 
in  Wagner,  the  man  between  two  women  in  Grillparzer,  etc.), 
to  the  predetermination  in  religion  occasioned  by  repressions 
of  childhood  (Zinzendorf,  etc.).  One  might  refer  further  to 
the  reformer  who  will  quit  scores  "with  his  feeling  of  guilt  by  a 
zealous  combat  against  immorality  (385),  to  the  army  of  reac- 
tion builders  (321),  etc. 

Still  a number  of  other  unconscious  plans  of  life  may  be 
named.  The  knowledge  of  such  connections  imposes  mighty 
tasks  upon  the  pedagogue.  The  whimsical  eccentricity  in  the 
choice  of  a vocation,  often  so  mysterious,  now  becomes  compre- 
hensible and  instead  of  belaboring  the  youth  by  pressure  and 
compulsion  with  tiresome  lectures  which  do  not  annul  the  inner 
need,  he  will  banish  the  illusion  analytically  in  such  a way  that 
the  pupil  may  breathe  again  in  freedom.  For  the  boy  who  is 
absorbed  in  a burning  passion  for  the  problem  of  flying,  he  will, 
if  the  wish  cannot  be  sublimated  to  valuable  achievements  at 
the  proper  moment,  analyze  a flying-dream;  for  the  aspirant 
for  the  stage  who  has  little  talent,  he  will  analyze  an  exhibition 
dream.  For  the  youth  who  is  excellently  suited  for  the  pro- 
fession of  medicine  and  shows  great  inclination  toward  this  pro- 
fession, but  is  restrained  by  aversion  for  wounds  and  corpses,  he 
dissolves  the  inhibition  by  analysis.  The  man  imprisoned  in  a 
“life-lie,”  to  use  the  expression  of  Bertschinger  * adopted  by 
Ibsen,  who  wishes  to  make  believe  that  he  is  an  angel  of  purity, 

* C.  Bertschinger,  U.  Gelegenheitsursachen  gewisser  Neurosen  u.  Psy- 
chosen. Allg.  Zschr.  f.  Psychiatrie  u.  psychisch-gerichtl.  Medizin.  Vol. 
69  (1912),  pp.  588-617. 


ADLER’S  THEORIES 


407 


gallantry,  magnanimity,  and  in  this  feigned  role,  receives 
severe  injury,  he  enables  to  fight  an  honest  battle  against  his 
internal  enemy. 

For  the  first  investigation  of  a plan  of  life,  we  are  indebted 
to  Sigmund  Freud,  who,  under  the  unpretentious  title,  “Eine 
Kindheitserinnerung  des  Leonardo  da  Vinci”  (A  Childhood 
Memory  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci)  traced  the  peculiar  life  develop- 
ment of  the  great  artist  and  thinker  back  to  infantile  sexual  in- 
fluences. Alfred  Adler  institutes  far-reaching  investigations 
of  the  theory  of  the  plan  of  life  in  his  book,  * ‘ Uber  den  nervosen 
Charakter”  (Concerning  the  Nervous  Character).  According 
to  Adler,  every  neurotic  and  psychotic  individual  is  under  the 
rule  of  a uniform  life  plan  which  proceeds  towards  the  mast- 
ering of  the  feeling  of  insufficiency.  “The  character  traits,  es- 
pecially the  neurotic  ones,  serve  as  psychic  means  and  forms 
of  expression  for  bringing  about  the  guidance  of  the  life  opin- 
ions, acquiring  a place,  gaining  a fixed  point  in  the  fluctuations 
of  existence,  in  order  to  attain  the  final  goal,  the  feeling  of 
superiority.”  * Thus  the  neurotic  creates  assurances  for  him- 
self. “To  these  assurances  belong  also  the  fixation  and 
strengthening  of  character  traits  which,  in  the  chaos  of  life, 
form  working  guides  and  thus  lessen  the  uncertainty.”  t 
“Feeling  of  guilt  and  conscience  are  fictitious  guiding  lines  of 
caution,  like  the  religious  emotions,  and  serve  the  tendency 
toward  assurance.”  | “Still  more  firmly  does  the  nervous  in- 
dividual keep  his  god,  his  idol,  his  ideal  personality  in  view  and 
cling  to  his  guiding  line,  thereby  losing  sight  of  reality,  while 
the  healthy  individual  is  constantly  prepared  to  give  up  this 
assistance,  these  crutches,  and  reckon  unprejudiced  with  real 
ity.  The  healthy  individual  also,  can  and  will  create  his  divin- 
ity, feel  himself  drawn  upward,  will  however,  never  lose  sight 
of  reality,  and  calculates  with  it  as  soon  as  the  moment  of  ac- 
tion and  effort  arrives.  Hence  the  nervous  individual  is  under 
the  rule  of  a fictitious  plan  of  life.”  || 

Aside  from  the  previously  mentioned  one-sidedness  with 

* Adler,  Nerv.  Charakter,  p.  8.  t Same,  p.  25. 

f Same,  p.  14.  ||  Same,  p.  36. 


408 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


which  Adler  makes  the  limitation  of  the  ego-instinct  condi- 
tioned on  organic  changes,  the  foundation  of  the  plan  of  life, 
and  purposely  denies  the  erotic  influences,  aside  also  from  the 
insufficient  religious  psychological  construction,  Adler ’s  theory 
of  the  fictitious  guiding  line  is  highly  fruitful  and  valuable. 
But  it  must  be  qualified  by  a consideration  which  allows  the  in- 
stincts for  self-preservation  and  for  perpetuation  of  the  race 
to  have  their  rights. 

12.  Religious  Manifestations. 

Psychoanalysis  performs  two  services  for  religion:  one  in 
the  domain  of  religious  psychology  and  one  in  that  of  biology. 
It  helps  to  understand  religion  and  to  estimate  its  significance. 
On  the  other  hand,  psychoanalysis  gives  no  explanation  of  the 
content  of  truth  in  religion,  although  it  eliminates  neurotic 
forms  of  religion  which  do  not  hold  their  own  against  the 
reality-thinking,  much  quicker  and  more  surely  than  all  his- 
torical and  systematic  theology. 

We  have  repeatedly  had  occasion  to  disclose  the  origin  of 
religious  experiences.  Page  36  crown  of  thorns,  37  vision  of 
angel,  38  vision  of  devil,  66  anxiety -hysteria  as  the  effect  of  im- 
proper religious  instruction,  71  obsessional  praying,  76  prayer 
with  negative  result,  83  laughing  during  religious  services,  83, 
92,  135  correspondence  between  profane  and  religious  love,  93 
disturbance  of  prayer,  92  piousness,  loss  of  the  adoration  of 
Jesus,  stoicism,  129  pantheism,  136  madonna  fanaticism,  145 
religious  scruples,  194  disappearance  of  love  as  result  of  reli- 
gious influences,  203  oscillation  between  religious  and  homo- 
sexual emotion,  213  anger  against  God,  247  phantasies  concern- 
ing the  face  and  figure  of  God,  252  religious  explanation  of  a 
sexual  wish  in  a dream,  326  longing  to  change  churches,  275f 
the  symbol  in  religion,  327  dogmatism,  255  disjection  in  re- 
ligion, 331  clothes  fetichism  in  connection  with  religious  con- 
version, estrangement  from  God,  turning  to  Jesus,  379  juvenile 
hallucination  of  a devil.  I will  add  a somewhat  complicated 
but  highly  instructive  example : 

I was  asked  by  a gentleman  of  excellent  character,  aged 


RELIGIOUS  MANIFESTATIONS 


409 


thirty-nine,  member  of  a Christian  communion,  who  was  on  the 
point  of  joining  a new  sect,  to  explain  a number  of  passages  in 
Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse.  Naturally  the  attempt  failed  at 
the  first  citation.  Apparently  diverting,  I learned  that  the 
man,  some  weeks  before,  after  attending  a religious  lecture,  had 
felt  a kind  of  sticking  pain  in  his  stomach  at  the  moment  he 
asked  himself  if  he  were  not  sinning  by  denying  the  devil.  At 
the  same  time,  a violent  anxiety  appeared  which  compelled 
Bible  reading  for  hours  at  a time  for  the  purpose  of  overcoming 
the  anxiety.  The  words  of  the  demoniacs  at  Gadara  occupied 
much  of  his  attention:  “Why  do  you  come  to  punish  us  be- 
fore the  time  ? ’ ’ — a speech  which  had  caused  him  much  thought 
since  his  sixteenth  year  but  now  had  become  an  obsessional  idea. 
The  so-called  prophetic  (apocalyptic)  part  of  the  Bible,  as  well 
as  the  observation  of  the  Sabbath  and  the  refraining  from  pork, 
exerted  on  him  an  irresistible  magic.  Withdrawing  from 
analysis,  he  actually  transferred  to  the  sect.  Only  after 
months  did  I obtain  a continuation  of  the  analysis.  Then  it 
came  to  light  that  the  man,  in  addition  to  the  obsession  over  the 
demon  question  named  above,  was  obsessed  by  the  saying: 
“The  night  cometh  when  no  man  can  work.”  The  prophetic 
part  of  the  Bible  was  the  most  important  to  him  so  that  he  pub- 
lished a very  definite  plan  of  God  which  culminated  in  the 
second  advent  of  Christ.  The  observance  of  the  Sabbath  was 
sacred  to  him  as  exact  observance  of  divine  command.  He  was 
especially  impressed  by  the  statement  that  the  dead  should 
sleep  until  the  second  coming  of  Christ.  The  belief  in  the  devil, 
previously  denied,  became  very  important  to  him.  One  while, 
he  feared  to  have  committed  the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost  but 
could  not  decide  in  what  this  consisted.  Now,  he  felt,  after  long 
distress,  happy  and  healthy.  The  analysis  had  therefore,  a 
priori,  little  prospect  of  changing  the  manner  of  thought. 

Whence  came  these  phenomena  ? When  twelve  years  old,  the 
boy  practiced  masturbation,  which,  three  years  later,  after  he 
had  read  a warning  article,  weighed  heavily  on  his  conscience. 
The  pains  in  his  stomach  appeared  at  this  time,  never  to  dis- 
appear again  for  good.  For  a half  year,  he  successfully  fast- 


410 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


ened  his  hands  at  night  with  a cord.  In  his  sixteenth  year, 
three  sayings  frequently  occupied  his  thoughts,  among  them 
the  absurd  song : 

“To  combat  the  Kingdom  of  Lust 
Be  my  wisdom,  0 Highest! 

It  is  a poison  for  our  life 
And  turns  our  joys  to  pain.” 

Further  the  maxim : 

“Everything  in  its  place 
Saves  much  time  and  many  an  evil  word.” 

Finally  the  saying  of  the  demoniacs  of  Gadara  already  men- 
tioned. In  the  analysis,  it  proved  that  all  these  sayings  had 
attained  such  great  emphasis  because  of  their  relation  to  the 
sexual  complex.  The  two  last  named,  attained  their  obses- 
sional character  because  they  expressed  allegorically  the  un- 
pleasant sexual  function  and  its  results. 

As  a young  fellow,  he  had  been  disgusted  with  the  brothels 
into  which  he  had  allowed  himself  to  be  enticed.  In  his  mar- 
riage, his  wife  compelled  him  to  practice  coitus  interruptus. 
The  result  was,  as  described  on  page  208,  extreme  partiality 
for  nature-cure  methods  so  long  as  the  improper  marital  inter- 
course lasted  (over-compensation  for  the  unnatural  sexual 
practice)  but  only  so  long. 

Passing  over  the  interesting  dilemmas  of  the  period  imme- 
diately following,  I will  mention  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  transfer  into  a new  communion  occurred.  As  a re- 
sult of  his  religious  sublimation,  the  patient  had  been  free  from 
his  old  hysterical  pains  in  the  stomach  for  two  years  but  showed 
during  this  period  a nervous  tic.  Some  months  after  the  death 
of  his  wife,  the  demons’  question:  “Why  do  you  come  to 
punish  us  before  the  time  1 ’ ’ again  gained  control  over  him,  an 
expression  of  the  sexuality  violently  raging  within  him  and  the 
damming  up  of  his  sublimated  compensation.  He  became  dis- 
satisfied with  the  sect  which  he  had  previously  loved,  because 
he  thought  he  discovered  in  it  anxiety  over  death.  Hence, 
figuratively  expressed,  his  eroticism  flowed  back  into  infantile 


RELIGIOUS  MANIFESTATIONS 


411 


channels,  the  old  complex-functions  awakened  and  sought  new 
gratification.  Such  a gratification,  the  new  sect  afforded.  Its 
teaching  gratified  him  for  many  reasons  which  corresponded  to 
his  complexes.  I will  name  only  a few : 1.  The  Apocalyptic 
plan  of  salvation  in  God  includes  death,  after  that,  the  sleep 
of  the  dead  in  the  night  when  no  one  can  work,  thus  where  the 
“premature  punishment”  is  ended,  and  finally  the  second 
advent  of  Christ.  We  have  recognized  the  sexual  necessity,  the 
unsatisfied  libido,  as  foundation  of  the  obsessions,  hence  the 
ideas  of  death-sleep  and  of  the  parusia  as  recipients  of  the  com- 
plex-gratification become  comprehensible  to  us  as  expectations 
of  sexual  peace  and  later  of  gratification.  The  second  advent 
was  thus  a sublimation  of  the  wish  for  a second  marriage. 

2.  The  reality  of  the  devil  corresponded  to  the  experience  of 
the  tormenting  eroticism  as  the  second  advent  of  Christ  satis- 
fied the  longing  for  a second  happy  marriage. 

3.  The  Biblical  orthodoxy  was  a symptom  of  the  anxiety-neu- 
rosis (compare  Freud,  “Zwangshandlungen  und  Religion- 
siibung.”  Sammlung  kleiner  Schriften  zur  Neurosenlehre,  2d 
Part)  as  the  patient  himself  admits.  For  the  estimation  of 
orthodoxy  in  history,  such  cases  are  very  important. 

4.  The  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  of  the  tithes,  of  the  re- 
fraining from  pork,  form,  like  the  fanaticism  in  the  practice 
of  the  nature-cure  method,  in  its  time,  an  overcompensation 
which  would  make  up  for  the  ethical  deficiency  in  the  marriage. 
For  the  rest,  the  patient  was  (like  another  of  my  patients)  as 
result  of  sexual  repression,  a vegetarian;  so  much  the  more 
willingly  did  he  now  submit  to  the  religious  demands  of  absti- 
nence. The  prohibition  of  meat  commonly  corresponds  to 
sexual  denial. 

The  mentally  weak,  though  studious,  man  agreed  with  me 
point  by  point.  But  he  felt  happy  in  his  piety.  He  left  his 
lucrative  post  for  the  sake  of  the  Sabbath.  A few  years  later, 
the  official  who  had  previously  been  well  off  financially,  was 
ruined.  Concerning  his  inner  state,  I know  nothing. 

We  see  how  well  that  the  sublimated  form  of  religion  was 
adapted  to  the  primary  fixation  of  the  libido.  Very  often,  the 


412 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


repressed  unmoral  material  returns  in  the  center  of  the  re- 
ligion, for  example,  in  the  disgusting  masochism  of  many  as- 
cetics and  the  sadism  of  many  judges  of  witches  and  heretics 
(above  page  311).  Novalis  justly  remarks:  “It  is  remark- 
able that  the  association  of  sensual  pleasure,  religion  and 
cruelty  and  the  common  tendency  of  these  has  not  been  noticed 
long  ago.”  * E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann  puts  these  words  in  the  mouth 
of  his  “Medardus”:  “Thus  I spake  of  the  wonderful  mys- 
teries of  religion  in  glowing  pictures,  the  deep  significance  of 
which  was  the  voluptuous  frenzy  of  the  most  ardent,  longing 
love.”  t 

One  must,  however,  guard  agaiust  wishing  to  consider  re- 
ligion as  altogether  only  higher  directed  libido.  Kant  based  it 
on  the  ethical  demand,  understanding  God  as  the  real  basis  of 
the  moral  postulate.  The  metaphysics  of  practically  all  great 
philosophers  from  Plato  and  Aristotle  down  to  Leibnitz,  Hebbel 
and  Herbart,  indeed  even  to  Wundt,  Theodor  Lipps  and  Eiehl 
arrived  at  a concept  of  God  by  way  of  reality-thinking,  which 
concept  agrees  in  essential  outlines  with  the  Christian  one. 

Psychoanalysis  in  no  way  violates  the  claims  of  truth  of  the 
Christian  religion  as  such.  Of  course,  as  already  noticed,  it 
destroys  many  spurious  religious  experiences  by  showing  the 
illusory  complex-function  at  the  bottom  of  these.  It  must  do 
this  in  order  to  banish  misfortune.  It  would  be  all  too  small 
for  Christianity  to  think  that  harm  is  to  be  feared  for  its  future 
from  analysis.  The  new  method  teaches  us  rather  to  under- 
stand many  a form  of  current  piety  rejected  as  monstrous  or 
ridiculed  as  laughable,  to  consider  them  causally  in  their 
necessity  and  estimate  their  deeper  meaning.  It  comes  to  the 
assistance  of  religious  psychology  which  is  in  its  infancy.  Even 
to-day,  it  has  given  us  the  solutions  for  a mass  of  myths,  re- 
ligious hallucinations,  inspirations, J prohibitions,  bizarre  new 
formations,  ceremonials,  ancient  enigmas  like  automatic  glosso- 
lalia,  etc.  And  it  will  accomplish  still  much  more. 

* E.  Heilborn,  Novalis,  p.  160. 

f E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann,  Elixiere  des  Teufels,  p.  73. 

% Pfister,  Glossolalie.  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  440. 


VALUE  OF  RELIGION 


413 


Psychoanalysis  also  teaches  us  to  estimate  the  value  of  re- 
ligion anew.  I confess  that  the  beauty  and  the  blessing  of  a 
healthy,  ethically  pure  piety  have  only  become  overwhelmingly 
clear  to  me  from  the  investigations  here  described.  Religion, 
in  favorable  eases,  guards  the  libido  repelled  by  the  rude,  avari- 
cious reality,  against  conversion  into  hysterical  physical  symp- 
toms and  against  introversion  into  anxiety,  melancholia,  obses- 
sional phenomena,  etc.  Freud  speaks  of  the  “extraordinary 
increase  in  neuroses  since  the  decline  of  religions.  ” * I would 
much  rather  have  unfortunate  people  whom  I cannot  really  cure 
by  analysis,  in  an  extreme  sect  or  a cloister  than  in  a psycho- 
neurosis. Of  course  there  is  also  much  neurotic  misery  in 
cloisters  and  religious  communities. 

Stekel  also  attributes  to  religion  a high  ethical  mission: 
“Religion  serves  to  bind  these  (original)  impulses  of  hate  in 
the  form  of  anxiety  (tendencies  toward  assurance  of  Adler). 
The  inhibitions  increase  to  consciousness  of  guilt  when  the  indi- 
vidual does  not  succeed  in  utilizing  his  hate ; thereby  he  ration- 
alizes it,  converts  it  into  love  or  sublimates  it.”  t 

We  have  already  discussed  how  Jung  assigned  to  religion 
the  task  of  making  fruitful  for  ethical  achievements,  the  forces 
bound  up  in  “incestuous”  constellations  (299).  Of  Chris- 
tianity, he  says : “In  a time,  when  a great  part  of  humanity 
is  beginning  to  deny  Christianity,  it  is  well  worth  while  to  per- 
ceive clearly  why  it  has  really  been  accepted.  It  has  been 
accepted  to  escape  eventually  the  grossness  of  antiquity.  If  we 
lay  it  aside,  then  the  unbridled  license  is  already  at  hand,  of 
which  life  in  modern  large  cities  gives  us  an  impressive  fore- 
taste. The  step  thither  is  no  progress  but  a retrogression.  . . . 
To-day,  the  individual  feels  himself  inhibited  by  the  hypocrit- 
ical public  opinion  and  hence  prefers  to  lead  a secret  life  apart, 
publicly  however,  to  represent  the  moral  code ; things  might  be 
quite  different  however,  if  people  in  general  should  find  the 
moral  mask  too  foolish  and  should  become  conscious  of  how 
dangerously  their  beasts  lay  in  wait  for  one  another;  then  a 

* Freud,  D.  zukiinftigen  Chancen  d.  Psa,  Zbl.  I,  p.  5. 

t Stekel,  Sprache  d.  Traumes,  p.  53. 


414 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


debauch  of  depravity  might  readily  sweep  over  humanity — 
that  is  the  dream,  th^  wish-dream  of  the  morally  restricted  per- 
son of  the  present  i he  forgets  the  distress  which  robs  the  human 
being  of  breath  and  which  with  harsh  hand  would  interrupt 
every  pleasure.”*  The  religious  myth,  Jung  calls  “one  of 
the  greatest  and  most  important  institutions  of  humanity, 
which  with  deceptive  symbols  gives  man  security  and  strength 
against  being  overwhelmed  by  the  vastness  of  the  universe.  ’ ' t 
He  wishes  therefore  to  carefully  retain  the  religious  symbol 
“after  unavoidable  elimination  of  certain  antiquated  parts,  as 
postulate  or  as  Transcendental  theory  and  also  as  object  of  in- 
struction but  fill  it  with  new  content  in  such  measure  as  the 
status  of  the  cultural  life  of  the  time  demands.  ’ ’ t This  is  a 
position  which  has  also  been  assumed  by  Wundt  ||  and  Eucken 
andi  especially  by  Paulsen.  The  latter  says,  for  example: 
“The  great  symbols  which  already  interpret  the  meaning  of 
the  world  to  the  child,  again  become  vivid.  The  systems  of 
the  philosophers,  the  theories  of  the  scholars,  the  systems  of 
the  theologians  pass  away,  as  between  evening  and  morning 
the  clouds  come  and  go,  while  the  great  symbols  remain  like 
the  stars  of  heaven  when  they,  too,  are  momentarily  hidden 
from  view  by  the  passing  clouds.”  § Many  theologians  are  of 
similar  opinion,  for  example,  A.  E.  Biedermann,  Lipsius,** 
Rauwenhoff,tt  Trotltsch.Jt 

While  psychoanalysis  may  disclose  the  emptiness  of  religious 
errors,  it  is  helpful  to  a healthy  piety  which  increases  moral 
strength.  It  has  compelled  more  than  one  physician,  who,  in 
the  bonds  of  materialistic  thinking  had  discarded  religion  as  a 
bygone  superstition,  to  adopt  a more  just  estimation,  yes,  even 

* Jung,  Wandlungen.  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  273. 

t Same,  p.  275. 

/ | Same,  p.  276. 

||  Wundt,  Syst.  d.  Philos,  pp.  668  f,  674. 

K Eucken,  Wahrheitsgehalt  d.  Relig.  p.  405  ff. 

§ Paulsen,  Einleitung  in  d.  Philos,  p.  340. 

**  Lipsius,  Lehrb.  der  er-prot.  Dogmatik,  Paragraph,  § 72  ff. 

tf  Rauwenhoff,  Rel.-phil.  p.  468  f. 

tt  E.  Troeltsch,  D.  Absoluth.  d.  Chr.  u.  d.  Rel.-gesch.,  Tubingen.  1912, 
p.  149. 


VALUE  OF  RELIGION 


415 


admiration,  for  the  mental  phenomenon.  Where,  outside  of 
psychoanalytic  circles,  would  you  find  a society  of  physicians, 
teachers  and  theologians  which  would  discuss  the  religious 
problem  in  a series  of  evenings  devoted  to^earnest  conferences? 
To  me,  it  is  a mystery  how  anxious  souls  can  fear  damage  to 
religion  and  morality  from  psychoanalysis.  How  closely  the 
results  of  the  latter  stand  to  the  commands  of  the  Gospel,  we 
will  show  later. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE  MEANING  OF  THE  MANIFESTATIONS 

In  manifestations  as  a whole,  we  may  differentiate  a psycho- 
logical and  a biological  significance. 

1.  The  Psychological  Meaning 
(a)  in  general 

1.  The  Manifestation  as  Wish  fulfillment 

In  every  manifestation,  we  recognized  as  compelling  force 
an  instinct  which  acted  along  indirect  ways  instead  of  master- 
ing reality  or  adapting  itself  to  reality.  So  far  as  every  in- 
stinct proceeds  to  gratification,  we  may  unhesitatingly  call 
every  manifest  symptom,  the  pathological  as  well  as  the  normal, 
for  example  the  dream,  a gratification  of  the  complex.  In  so 
doing,  it  would  naturally  not  be  declared  that  an  actual  gratifi- 
cation should  occur  but  it  is  at  least  striven  for. 

So  far  as  the  instinct  is  directed  toward  an  object  unattain- 
able at  the  moment,  it  becomes  a wish.  Since  with  every  grati- 
fication of  instinct,  pleasure  is  released,  even  though  this  is  not 
the  direct  goal,  it  yields  a gain  of  pleasure. 

According  to  the  first  aspect,  every  manifestation  must  be 
a wishfulfillment,  since  gratification  of  instinct  occurs  only 
when  the  longed-for  thing  becomes  at  least  relatively  reality. 

That  which  we  would  expect  from  our  insight  into  the  laws  of 
complex-reaction,  Freud  found  substantiated  by  direct  analysis 
of  neurotic  phenomena.  His  statement  that  every  dream  rep- 
resents a wish  as  fulfilled,  has  been  treated  very  slightingly. 
And  as  a matter  of  fact,  everyone  who  thinks  of  the  painful 
situations  experienced  in  the  dream,  may  at  first  find  Freud’s 
assertion  absurd  under  the  one  condition  that  he  does  not 

416 


ANXIETY  DREAM 


417 


trouble  about  that  which  Freud  wishes  to  say  and  does  say 
plainly  enough.  With  Freud,  the  accent  lies  on  the  points 
that  (1)  it  need  in  no  way  be  a conscious  wish  which  is  fulfilled 
in  the  dream,  but  often  an  unconscious  one  ; (2)  the  wishfulfill- 
ment  does  not  occur  in  that  which  is  really  dreamed  but  the 
latent  wish  comes  to  expression  only  symbolically  in  veiled 
form,  metaphorically,  like  a charade.  He  who  leaves  these  two 
fundamental  considerations  out  of  account,  does  an  injustice 
to  psychoanalysis  with  his  jest.  In  the  sense  indicated,  which 
is  clearly  and  plainly  defined  by  Freud,  the  significance  of  a 
wishfulfillment  appears  not  only  for  every  dream  but  for  all 
neurotic  symptoms,*  no  matter  how  tormenting  they  may  be. 

In  some  dreams,  which  Freud  describes  as  infantile,  although 
they  apparently  occur  also  in  adults,!  the  dream  content  cor- 
responds to  a manifest  wish,  for  example,  the  father  sees  his 
unfortunate  lame  child  jumping  around.  Usually  however 
this  is  not  the  case. 

He  who  only  looked  at  the  dream  of  the  two  furniture  vans 
(355),  or  that  of  the  negro  and  piano  (356),  or  that  of  coming 
too  late  and  arriving  at  proper  time  at  the  station  (358),  or 
that  of  the  awaited  Duchess  of  Angouleme  (359),  might  find 
it  difficult  to  see  a wish  realized  in  them.  But  if  one  takes  into 
consideration  the  associations,  the  whole  mental  situation,  then 
he  can  scarcely  miss  the  autistic  gratification  of  a strong  desire, 
unless  he  is  greatly  prejudiced  beforehand. 

Or  if  one  had  said  at  the  beginning  to  the  hysterical  girl 
whose  psychogenic  deafness  we  described  (96)  : “Your  suf- 
fering corresponds  to  your  wish” — she  would  have  justly  re- 
jected this  silly  assertion.  For  under  “your  wish”  she  would 
have  had  to  understand  a conscious  wish,  while  the  wishes: 

* An  exception  may  be  formed  by  anxiety  which  Freud  seeks  to  eluci- 
date physiologically  in  a manner  clever,  but  for  me,  not  convincing. 
(Freud,  “Angstneurose,”  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  76  f.)  Jones  derives  the 
anxiety  not  directly  from  repressed  sexuality  but  from  an  “inborn 
instinct  of  fear  which  is  excited  to  excessive  activity  (as  defence  mech- 
anism) as  answer  to  the  danger  from  repressed  sexual  wishes.”  (Die 
Beziehungen  zwischen  Angstneurose  und  Angsthysterie.  Internat.  Zschr. 
f.  arztl.  Psa.  I,  p.  13.) 

t Here  they  are  in  need  of  an  overinterpretation,  however. 


418 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


“would  that  I might  no  more  hear  the  raging  father,  the  groan- 
ing mother,  the  dissolute  brother,  the  base  gossip  and  especially 
the  unloved  fiance  who  makes  sexual  demands”  in  their  con- 
nection with  the  suffering  were  unconscious.  Further,  the 
actual  deafness  was  not  wished  for,  but  only  a relative  deaf- 
ness, even  though  the  hysterical  girl  certainly  often  used  the 
expression:  “Would  that  I might  hear  nothing  of  the  whole 
thing !”  Just  as  little  did  the  dreamers  wish  a real  furniture 
van  or  the  historical  Duchess  of  Angouleme.* 

Let  us  take  another  example  characterized  by  extreme  sim- 
plicity. A refined  lady,  married  for  some  months,  is  suddenly 
seized  with  great  anxiety  lest  burglars  be  found  in  the  garden. 
Who  would  wish  anything  of  that  sort?  The  explanation  is 
that  the  husband  is  impotent  and  that  she  can  therefore  love 
him  po  more  although  she  lays  no  blame  on  him.  The  lady 
suffers  also  from  severe  pains  in  the  pelvis  (imaginary  deflora- 
tion- and  birth-pains)  and  is  operated  on  for  vaginismus, 
since  the  hymen  is  still  present,  without  the  pains  being  helped 
in  the  least.  I cured  the  husband,  a woman  physician  with  the 
aid  of  psychoanalysis,  the  wife,  who  naturally  wished  for  bur- 
glary in  her  organs  and  the  couple  which  had  been  married 
about  a year,  at  once  experienced  the  joy  of  normal  marriage 
and  parental  happiness  (124). 

I have  always  found  confirmed  without  exception  where 
analysis  was  possible,  that  the  manifestation,  as  a whole,  repre- 
sented as  real  something  which  was  secretly  wished  for,  often; 
without  the  subject’s  knowing  it.  Many  times,  one  will  not 
consider  it  possible  that  the  impulses  displaying  themselves  in 
the  dream  can  really  be  present,  until  one  is  convinced  by  acts 
in  the  waking  state  or  a series  of  other  arguments.  It  is  shock- 
ing to  many  subjects  of  analysis  to  have  demonstrated  by  in- 
fallible proof  what  vulgar  impulses  were  now  and  then  present 
and  repressed  in  their  minds.  The  analyst  must  often  console 

* A very  beautiful  example,  in  which  a physician  sees  his  index  finger 
as  syphilitic,  is  given  by  August  Starke  in  his  communication : “Ein 
Traum,  der  das  Gegenteil  einer  Wunscherfiillung  zu  verwirklichen 
scheint,  zugleich  ein  Beispiel  eines  Traumes,  der  von  einem  andern 
Traum  gedeutet  wird.”  Zbl.  II,  pp.  86-88. 


ANXIETY  DREAM 


419 


> 

with  the  assurance  that  one  is  not  responsible  for  the  repressed 
material  and  that  everyone,  without  exception,  carries  within 
himself  his  demons. 

Often  there  comes  to  fulfillment  in  the  dream,  a wish  which 
is  still  entirely  unconscious  but  which  later  becomes  conscious. 
Freud  calls  such  dreams,  prophetic  dreams,  of  which  we  also 
heard  Hebbel  speak,  page  352,  “annunciatory  dreams.” 
Maeder  gives  some  good  examples  of  these.* 

The  indicative  instead  of  the  optative  is  also  used  in  ordinary 
life.  * ‘ You  do  that  ’ ’ is  emphasizing  the  imperative : ‘ ‘do  that.  ’ ’ 
When  a skittle  ball  misses  its  goal,  the  unfortunate  marksman 
who  is  accustomed  to  act  out  his  impulses  is  the  personified 
optative  in  the  indicative. 

A more  frequent  special  case  is  that  when  a repressed 
thought,  a fear,  is  expressed  by  some  harmless  phenomenon  of 
related  nature.  From  a certain  date,  a gentleman  suffers  from 
the  annoying  and  vigorously  combated  habit  of  leaving  the  door 
open  on  leaving  the  house,  when  he  intended  to  shut  it,  so  that 
he  would  have  to  turn  around  and  draw  it  to ; or  he  has  forgotten 
something  and  must  turn  back,  for  example,  to  get  a pencil  or 
to  brush  his  hat  or  to  close  a cabinet  which  he  thought  was  open, 
etc.  Often  he  was  vexed  at  himself  for  turning  back  for  such  a 
bagatelle  but  originally  the  intention  seemed  important.  The 
analysis  shows:  His  marriage  is  unhappy,  further  he  takes 
little  pleasure  in  his  children.  He  would  likq  to  free  himself 
from  these  relations  but  does  not  dare  to  make  the  plans,  chiefly 
because  the  external  difficulties  seem  insuperable.  Further,  he 
shoves  aside  this  thought : “I  cannot  escape  from  these  rela- 
tionships. ’ ’ The  symptomatic  act  says : ‘ ‘ Quite  right  but  it  is 
only  the  house  from  which  you  will  not  so  easily  get  free.” 
Perhaps  it  also  means : ‘ ‘ Guard  against  tearing  yourself  from 
your  family.” 

A peasant,  aged  fifty -three,  suffered  from  violent  pains  in  his 
arm.  The  physician  made  the  mistaken  diagnosis  of  beginning 
muscular  atrophy.  I found : his  son  whom  he  called  his  “right 
arm”  gave  him  much  pain. 

* Maeder,  uber  die  Funktion  des  Traumes.  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  694  ff. 


420 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


The  same  man  showed  an  uncommonly  frequent  hysterical 
symptom:  pains  in  the  loins  (Kreuz).  They  are  only  an  ex- 
pression of  the  phantasy:  “you  must  bear  a heavy  cross 
(Kreuz),  yes  but  only  in  your  body.”  According  to  this  con- 
struction : “yes,  but  only,”  many  neuroses  are  formed  and  thus 
fulfill  a relative  wish. 

Especially  in  the  beginning  of  the  analysis  when  the  deeper 
mental  motives,  the  most  intimate  needs,  are  not  yet  recog- 
nized, the  dream  contains  fairly  plain  wishfulfillments.  The 
more  the  attachment  in  infantile  phantasies  is  released  by 
analysis  and  the  instincts  turn  to  a future  corresponding  to  the 
inner  imperative,  just  so  much  the  more  does  the  dream-con- 
tent assume  the  character  of  a proposal  which  one  might  desig- 
nate as  prophecy,  if  the  possibility  of  new,  preferable  life-plans 
did  not  exist.  Thus,  the  wishfulfilling  in  the  manifestation 
may  then  be  called  a kind  of  ballon  d’essai. 

2.  The  Manifestation  as  Acquiring  of  Pleasure  and  Avoiding 

of  Pain 

This  title,  too,  may  cause  those  who  saw  the  enormous  physi- 
cal and  particularly  mental  suffering  of  profound  neurotic  and 
psychotic  patients,  to  shake  their  heads.  And  yet  the  super- 
scription expresses  a truth.  In  the  depths  of  grievous  tortures, 
there  often  lurks  a high  degree  of  pleasure  which  we  have  to 
understand  as  masochism.  Goethe  was  far  too  keen  a student 
of  humanity  to  have  missed  the  universality  of  this  desire  for 
the  sweet  torment.  He  remarks  that  man  has  a kind  of  lust 
for  evil  and  a dim  longing  for  the  pleasure  of  pain.* 

Often,  the  morbid  symptom  itself  is  obviously  pleasant  and 
unpleasant  at  the  same  time.  We  heard  above  of  the  girl  who 
scratched  herself  to  the  hair-roots,  tearing  out  whole  pieces  of 
skin  and  tufts  of  hair,  thereby  obtaining  a high  degree  of 
pleasure,  however  (34). 

The  hysterical  man  who  admired  the  hallucinated  nixies’ 
veils  so  greatly  and  was  indifferent  to  the  nixies  themselves 

* Goethe  Wilhelm  Meisters  theatralische  Sendung.  Reports  by  Gus- 
tav Billeter,  Zurich,  1910,  p.  93, 


PLEASURE  AND  PAIN  IN  MANIFESTATION  421 


(331),  often  goes  into  the  forest  in  the  evening.  Then  the 
trees  change  into  ghosts  who  pursue  him  through  the  thickets 
and  frighten  him  terribly.  But  in  the  depths  of  his  soul,  there 
plainly  lurked  pleasure.  He  invited  a lady  to  a ball,  retracted 
the  invitation  at  the  last  moment  and  wept  miserably  over  his 
misfortune  but  revelled  in  his  phantasy  that  he  tasted  richly 
of  “sweet  torment.” 

A normal  young  girl  who  wanted  to  gain  moral  strength  ac- 
cording to  the  advice  of  a teacher  of  Catholic  morality,  cauter- 
ized a burn  with  the  prescribed  substance  in  quadruple  strength. 
The  pain  was  frightful  but  the  pleasure  gained,  outweighed  it. 

A physician  whom  I know  tells  me  that  a waitress  appeared 
at  night  in  great  excitement  with  the  beseeching  entreaty  to 
open  her  stomach  for  she  had  swallowed  a fragment  of  glass. 
After  four  days,  her  request  was  complied  with  and  no  foreign 
body  was  found.  The  mishap  was  purely  imaginary.  Six 
weeks  later,  the  hysterical  person  appeared  to  the  physician 
again  with  the  same  demand. 

How  a hysterical  person  can  torture  herself  for  decades 
with  indescribable  torments  and  yet  secretly  enjoy  ecstasies 
“with  immeasurable  sweetness”  in  her  adoration  of  the  heav- 
enly bridegroom,  I showed  in  Margaretha  Ebner  (1291-1351).* 

Frequently,  this  gain  of  pleasure  is  hard  to  find  but  it  is 
seldom  lacking.  A conscious  intention  to  gain  pleasure  and 
avoid  pain  may  not,  as  a rule,  be  ascribed  to  the  subject  of 
the  manifestation.  When  an  analytic  patient  perceives  that 
getting  well  demands  much  sacrifice,  namely,  the  renunciation 
of  the  autistic  release  from  the  duties  of  life  which  should  be 
performed  with  moral  strength  in  actuality,  the  hate  is  ration- 
alized upon  the  analyst.  But  such  neurotics  who  make  the 
most  of  their  assertions  of  misfortune,  are  not  as  a rule,  con- 
scious swindlers,  for  intentional  automatism  would  be  a contra- 
diction and  neuroses  are,  from  the  standpoint  of  consciousness, 
automatisms.  Still,  there  are  also  moral  imbeciles  among 
neurotics. 

Not  in  all  psychoneuroses,  does  one  find  as  plain  motive,  the 

* Zbl.  I,  pp.  468-485, 


422 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


flight  from  reality  and  its  demands  with  the  aim  of  a phan- 
tastic  and  dramatic  solution  of  the  conflict.  But  very  often, 
one  meets  such  unconscious  pleasure-seekers. 

Bed-wetting,  for  instance,  when  there  is  neither  bladder 
weakness  nor  epilepsy,  is  usually  a nocturnal  exaction  of  atten- 
tion, as  I have  been  able  to  demonstrate  many  times.  If  the 
child  is  given  over  to  a nurse  who  affords  him  no  erotic  gratifi- 
cation, the  wetting  often  ceases  at  once.  The  habit  may,  how- 
ever, according  to  an  infantile  theory  of  reproduction,  repre- 
sent a sexual  act  and  is  then  curable  by  analysis.  An  eighteen 
year  old  girl  with  neurotic  anxiety,  who  had  suffered  from 
eneuresis  since  a small  child,  of  late  years  had  had  her  symptom 
every  time  a boy  had  called  to  her  a greeting  or  jest  during  the 
day.  I carefully  allowed  the  girl,  who  was  not  especially  in- 
telligent, to  discover  the  state  of  affairs  for  herself  and  was  sur- 
prised to  see  how  little  assistance  was  necessary.  The  recovery 
resulted  at  once. 

The  sparing  of  discomfort  is  often  striven  for  by  physical 
sufferings  which  save  an  ethical  struggle;  if  the  conflict  is 
worked  out  consciously,  the  suffering  is  far  greater  and  ter- 
minates in  melancholia  or  neurosis  of  higher  order.  I once 
met  two  sisters  who,  as  strangers,  embraced  the  opportunity  to 
pour  out  their  hearts  to  the  pastor.  Both  labored  under  exactly 
the  same  mental  needs.  The  younger  suffered  from  violent 
migraine  but  came  off  satisfied  with  the  difficulties  of  life,  since, 
as  she  said,  she  banished  the  disappointments  from  her  mind 
and  laughed.  Thus  she  was,  according  to  the  testimony  of  her 
sister  and  her  own  assertion,  always  cheerful  and  in  spite  of 
the  migraine,  a happy  person.  The  other  sister,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  free  from  hysteria  but  in  its  place,  moody  and  melan- 
cholic. She  fought  out  the  life  conflict  in  great  part  con- 
sciously and  became  unhappy.  Naturally,  her  mental  suffer- 
ing was  also  enormously  strengthened  by  subliminal  contribu- 
tions. For  the  rest,  the  example  shows  the  protective  charac- 
ter of  hysteria. 

A young  husband  was  mean  to  his  wife  before  asthma  broke 
out  but  then  became  proportionately  kind  toward  her.  When 


NEUROTIC  HABITS 


423 


the  physical  trouble  receded,  the  previous  irritability  returned. 
This  interchange  happened  repeatedly. 

Many  times,  it  is  not  an  ethical  longing  but  resistance  against 
some  kind  of  duty,  hard  to  perform,  which  drives  the  person 
into  the  infantilism  of  the  neurosis.  That  such  a result  is  very 
bad,  is  obvious  enough.  He  who  wishes  to  get  through  life 
' cheaply  and  seeks  to  escape  the  moral  command  of  his  inmost 
soul,  must  constantly  pay  heavy  damages.  One  puts  off  from 
week  to  week  the  composition  of  an  unpleasant  letter,  has  to 
repress  many  unpleasant  feelings  and  finally  writes  it  when 
the  situation  is  just  so  much  the  worse.  Freud  indicates  the 
significance  of  the  repression-process  shown  in  this  section  when 
he  speaks  of  an  attraction  from  the  unconscious.* 

(b)  the  special  meaning 

“According  to  a rule  which  I had  always  found  substantiated 
but  had  not  the  courage  to  set  up  as  a general  one,  a symptom 
signifies  the  representation — realization — of  a phantasy  with 
sexual  content,  thus  a sexual  situation.  I might  better  say, 
at  least  one  of  the  meanings  of  a symptom  corresponds  to  the 
representation  of  a sexual  phantasy,  while  for  the  other  mean- 
ings, there  is  no  such  limitation  of  content.”  t “The  morbid 
phenomena  are,  to  put  it  bluntly,  the  sexual  activities  of  the 
patients.  ’ ’ t 

My  experiences  support  the  contention  that  these  statements 
very  often  prove  correct,  still,  in  view  of  the  insufficient  num- 
ber of  my  observations,  I venture  neither  to  explain  Freud’s 
rule  as  universally  applicable  nor  to  consider  the  sexual  signifi- 
cance of  the  cases  seen  by  me  as  the  deepest  ones.  Let  us  re- 
call at  this  point  the  broadness  of  the  definition  of  the  sexual 
given  by  Freud.  That  very  strong  sexual  and  erotic  energies 
may  be  invested  in  manifestations,  as  well  as  in  sport,  art  and 
religion,  is  obvious.  Only  in  this  way,  can  we  explain  the 
tremendous  intensity  of  the  compulsion  to  senseless  acts  or 

* Freud,  Z.  Ubertrag.  Zbl.  II,  p.  170. 

f Freud,  Bruchstiick.  Kl.  Schriften  II,  p.  39. 

t Same,  p.  102. 


424 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


phantasies,  to  hysterical  pains  and  other  complex-reactions. 
Further,  the  pent-up  instinct  for  assertion  and  execution  often 
manifests  itself  in  symptoms. 

A fifteen  year  old  girl  became  ill  with  severe  dysmenorrhea 
which  the  physician  wanted  to  relieve  by  operation.  A woman 
physician  who  practiced  analysis  fortunately  advised  analysis 
however,  which  soon  revealed  the  purely  hysterical  character 
of  the  disturbance.  The  girl  plainly  acted  out  a birth-phantasy 
as  her  accompanying  dreams  proved.  She  repeatedly  had  a 
red  spot,  about  one  centimeter  in  diameter,  on  her  throat,  very 
often  during  the  analysis.  She  once  surprised  her  parents  to- 
gether. At  that  time,  the  embarrassed  mother  said : “Father 
has  lost  his  collar-button  and  is  looking  for  it.”  Soon  after- 
wards, the  trouble  began. 

Many  similar  examples  might  be  introduced. 

2.  The  Biological  Meaning  op  the  Manifestation 

The  biological  purpose  of  the  instincts  consist  in  the  preser- 
vation of  the  individual  and  of  the  race.  We  observe  this  also 
in  the  effects  of  instinctive  activity  which  proceeds  from  the 
unconscious. 

(a)  the  manifestation  as  means  of  assurance 

Freud  considers  every  manifestation  as  a final,  even  though 
not  always  suitable,  measure  to  avoid  discomfort,  to  protect  the 
individual  against  pain.  He  speaks  of  defence-neuroses  and 
considers  the  neurosis  as  an  attempt  at  healing  which  has  mis- 
carried. Adler  pursued  these  thoughts  farther  in  a one-sided 
manner.  According  to  him,  every  neurotic  manifestation 
seeks,  as  we  know  (407),  to  secure  the  individual  against  the 
organic  inferiority  which  is  present.*  One  might  also  speak, 
to  select  a thought  of  Freud’s,  of  an  assurance  against  the  de- 
mands of  life,  against  the  impelling  force  of  conscience  (Jung). 
The  combat  against  the  enormous  dissipation  of  moral  energy 
practiced  by  healthy  and  sick,  belongs  to  the  most  important 
tasks  of  education. 


Adler,  Nerv.  Charakter,  p.  11. 


DUTY  AND  ETHICS 


425 


(b)  the  manifestation  as  an  attempt  at  healing 

We  have  just  pointed  out  that  the  complex-formation  may 
represent  a defect  in  the  moral  sense.  The  ethical  impulse 
can,  however,  be  executed  so  vigorously  in  the  compromise 
which  every  manifestation  signifies  that  its  tendency  pre- 
dominates. 

We  have  already  given  examples.  I recall  the  Don  Juan  who 
endowed  himself  with  pains  in  arms  and  legs,  the  former  prob- 
ably the  latter  certainly,  to  escape  base  love  affairs  and  to  guard 
against  new  ones  (126). 

According  to  Maeder,  the  dreams  contain  in  great  part  such 
unavowed  ethical  attempts,  unconscious  imperatives,  in  order 
to  solve  the  life  conflict  and  represent  the  moral  demand  cor- 
responding to  the  law  of  the  personal  nature.  (Jahrbuch  IV, 
692  ff.,  V,  647  ff.).  My  own  experience  has  not  found  so  great 
a universality  of  the  moral  problem  named.  Only  by  applying 
force  and  rejecting  the  associations  given,  can  I bring  every 
dream  into  this  scheme.  For  the  therapeutic  aim,  this  method 
may  be  harmless,  but  not  always,  since  it  renders  difficult  the 
analysis  of  the  attachments  lying  in  the  past  and  leaves  them 
to  good  luck.  Scientifically,  that  Procrustean  method  is  always 
dangerous. 

Freud  showed  in  his  “Gradiva”  the  process  of  spontaneous 
cure  of  a neurosis.  We  pedagogues  are  very  interested  in  this 
important  conception  but  do  not  feel  ourselves  called  to  settle  it. 

Our  examples  showed  that  the  instinctive  connection  desiring 
expression  in  every  manifestation  is  to  be  traced  back  not 
merely  to  the  purpose  of  sparing  consciousness  painful 
thoughts,  thus  discomfort.  Besides  this  repression,  we  ob- 
served a positive  factor,  an  attraction:  that  of  subconscious 
pleasure.  Further,  we  found — and  in  accord  with  Freud — that 
the  manifestation  has  not  merely  (as  regression)  a backward- 
looking significance  but  also  a forward-looking  one,  in  other 
wrords,  not  only  a causal  character  but  also  a final  meaning. 
Also,  we  now  recognize  the  intimate  connection  between  moral- 
ity and  health,  disease  and  moral  delinquency.  Far  removed 


426 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


from  the  position  that  this  insight,  gained  by  pure  empiricism, 
may  cause  ethics  to  degenerate  into  naturalism,  it  shows  ;us 
rather  the  power  and  worth  of  the  fulfillment  of  duty  in  sur- 
prisingly sublime  light.  Has  not  Jesus  also  called  himself  a 
Savior  ? 


v 


♦ 


PART  II 

THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 


SECTION  I.  THE  METHODS 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  FUNDAMENTAL  RULE  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 
AND  ITS  APPLICATION 

The  content  of  the  fundamental  rule  of  psychoanalysis  has 
already  been  given  in  the  introduction  (6f).  We  will  now 
discuss  it  somewhat  further  and  examine  its  application. 

When  one  has  reached  the  point  with  the  patient  where  the 
analysis  can  begin,  he  says  to  him  something  like  the  following : 
“You  are  to  direct  your  attention  to  that  which  I shall  say  to 
you  and  simply  name  the  first  thing  which  comes  into  your 
mind ; do  not  ponder  over  what  is  said  to  you  but  merely  say 
without  critique  that  which  first  comes  into  your  mind,  regard- 
less of  whether  it  is  nice  or  ugly,  clever  or  stupid,  relevant  or 
irrelevant,  important  or  unimportant.”  It  is  advisable  to  give 
this  instruction  more  than  once  and  to  emphasize  that  we  are 
dealing  with  the  very  first  associations  or  when  several  appear 
simultaneously,  with  the  very  first  group  of  associations,  en- 
tirely without  the  exercise  of  any  criticism  of  the  content  of  the 
associated  idea  or  the  rejection  of  anything  as  inferior. 

One  carefully  avoids,  therefore,  all  suggestive  influences 
which  might  cause  the  patient  to  be  guided  in  his  associations  by 
the  tone,  attitude  or  facial  expression  of  the  analyst  instead  of 
by  the  idea  proposed.  As  we  shall  show,  suggestion  cannot 
generally  be  entirely  eliminated.  But  it  should  be  restricted 
as  much  as  possible.  Hence  the  analyst  maintains  as  uniform 
an  attitude  as  possible  and  does  not  betray  his  emotional  im- 
pulses, especially  not  by  voice  and  facial  expression.  In  ob- 
taining associations  from  the  patient,  one  makes  use  of  fixed 

429 


430 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


formulas,  as  “What  does  X bring  to  mind?”  Or  simply,  “X, 
further.  ’ ’ 

One  can  either  analyze  a definite  manifestation  systemati- 
cally or  allow  such  an  analysis  to  be  produced;  for  example, 
taking  associations  from  any  word,  a chain  of  associations,  a 
cryptogram  or  something  similar  may  be  formed.  As  a rule, 
the  patient  is  full  of  his  symptoms.  Freud  has  the  patient 
tell,*  first  of  all,  of  the  origin  of  the  symptoms  and  beginning 
here,  collects  the  conscious  causes.  “When  we  proceed  from 
the  last  material  which  the  patient  remembers,  to  seek  a re- 
pressed complex,  we  have  every  prospect  of  guessing  this,  if 
the  patient  puts  at  our  disposal  a sufficient  number  of  his  free 
associations.  Thus,  we  allow  the  patient  to  tell  what  he  wishes 
and  we  hold  fast  to  the  presupposition  that  he  will  have  no 
associations  except  such  as  depend  directly  upon  the  complex 
sought  for.”  f There  is  never  an  absence  of  associations.!: 
But  the  patient  often  keeps  silent  or  represses  his  associations 
as  they  appear,  the  former  under  neurotic  compulsion.  Of 
this,  we  shall  speak  later.  To  each  association,  one  has  one  or 
more  others  given,  according  to  need,  which  can  be  considered 
singly  or  in  groups  (constellations)  until  one  has  sufficient 
material  to  be  able  to  approach  the  interpretation. 

The  procedure  in  dream-analysis  is  similar.  Preferably, 
one  has  the  dream  repeated  a second  time  and  notes  the  devia- 
tions because  they  indicate  the  points  of  strongest  repression, 
the  seats  of  the  critical  secrets,  that  is,  when  we  are  not  deal- 
ing with  a mere  matter  of  style.  Now  we  can  proceed  in 
various  ways.  The  sequence  does  not  matter.  Stekel  first 
asks  the  dreamer  what  the  dream  brings  to  mind.  If  the 
beginner  answers,  “Nothing  at  all,”  Stekel  asks  further,  of 
what  actual  experience  the  dream  may  recall,  whereupon,  most 
patients  tell  of  an  event  which  appears  in  the  dream  changed 
and  falsified.  Or  he  ascertains  what  significance  this  or  that 
person  acting  in  the  dream  may  have  for  the  life  of  the 
dreamer.|| 

* Freud,  Studien,  p.  234.  t Same,  p.  31. 

f Freud,  Uber  Psa.  p.  30.  ||  Stekel,  Sprache  d.  T.  p.  513  f. 


DREAM  INTERPRETATION 


431 


Often,  one  names  the  part  of  the  dream  which  is  most 
striking  and  proceeds  farther  from  that.  Or  one  has  the 
dream  considered  hit  by  bit  and  uses  these  parts  as  instigators 
for  other  associations.  If  one  gets  little  or  nothing  from  an 
idea,  he  can  come  back  to  it  later. 

Many  a dream  fragment  reveals  its  secret  only  when  one  has 
dissected  it  into  separate  characteristics.  Hence  one  has  the 
manifestation  described  very  clearly  and  in  detail. 

Soon,  it  will  be  seen  that  a number  of  associations  to  the 
dream  fragment  point  to  one  latent  dream  thought.  If  fur- 
ther associations  follow,  one  holds  back  with  his  assumption 
for  awhile  and  also  does  not  betray  his  surmise  by  any  gesture 
and  allows  further  material  to  accumulate  until  a view  of  the 
whole  dream  or  of  an  essential  part  of  the  dream-content  can 
be  gained.  Much  which  is  still  obscure,  becomes  elucidated 
by  the  discovered  meaning.  New  associations  are  gathered 
and  thus  one  gains  first  an  interpretation  which  exhausts  one 
dream  stratum.  We  know  now,  however,  that  overdeter  ruina- 
tions are  always  possible.  One  tries  to  determine  by  obtaining 
further  reactions  whether  a deeper  meaning  may  not  be  con- 
ceivable, for  example,  an  erotic  meaning  behind  a religious 
one.  Every  interpretation  allows  the  entrance  into  conscious- 
ness of  other  unconscious  ideas  in  case  the  conductibility  has 
not  been  previously  exhausted.  If  one  wishes  from  theoreti- 
cal reasons  to  penetrate  deeper,  then  in  the  next  session,  he 
turns  back  to  the  object.  Still,  it  is  more  to  the  interest  of 
the  patient  to  decipher  the  new  dream,  so  far  as  it  reveals  its 
secret,  since  the  unexplored  remnant  returns  with  infallible 
certainty  in  this  or  that  disguise  when  one  needs  it. 

During  the  analysis,  whether  it  proceeds  by  free  rapport 
or  by  stepwise  treatment  of  individual  contents  of  the  mani- 
festation, one  pays  attention  to  the  complex-indicators  which 
we  described  in  discussing  the  association  experiment  (page 
335).  The  whole  analysis  is  indeed  only  an  extended  asso- 
ciation experiment.  One  pays  particular  attention  to  physi- 
cal reactions,  for  example,  blushing,  twitching,  twisting 
around,  and  also  to  mental  ones,  as  omissions,  misunderstand- 


432 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


ings,  transferring  attention  to  some  object  in  the  surround- 
ings or  to  a distant  idea  which  is  at  once  analyzed  again. 
This  jumping  to  an  object  which  apparently  does  not  belong 
to  the  subject  at  hand,  in  particular  affords  the  analysis  ex- 
cellent stopping  points.  Further,  lingering  long  over  the  same 
object  (perseveration)  is  a valuable  indication. 

If  the  conversation  lags,  we  can  have  the  patient  make  up 
phantasies,  fictions,  sequences,  general  impressions,  etc. 

One  should  allow  the  patient  to  discover  the  interpretation 
as  much  as  possible  by  himself.  He  thus  obtains  earlier  the 
feeling  of  security  and  rejoices  in  his  discovery.  One  thus 
prepares  him  better  for  subsequent  autoanalysis  and  self-edu- 
cation. 

Falsifications  of  memory,  for  example,  chronological  errors, 
should  be  noted  carefully  and  analyzed.*  Conscious  untruths 
should  not  be  censured,  otherwise  the  resistance  is  aroused. 
One  simply  gives  the  patient  to  understand  that  one  sees 
through  them  readily  and  considers  them  as  a resistance-symp- 
tom which  injures  the  patient.  Many  persons  who  are  liars  at 
the  beginning  of  the  analysis,  prove  later  to  be  highly  honor- 
able and  agreeable  patients,  while  many  others  who  are  frank 
at  first,  suddenly  erect  a barrier  and  wish  to  fortify  them- 
selves behind  it.  Those  who  are  liars  because  of  moral  defi- 
ciency, cannot  in  general,  be  deeply  analyzed. 

In  certain  systems  of  manifest  contents,  it  is  often  impos- 
sible to  decide  which  interpretation  is  correct  and  most  im- 
portant (see  page  361). 

On  page  181,  I described  the  hysteria  of  a girl  who  suffered 
from  severe  fatigue,  convulsions  of  laughing  and  weeping,  as 
well  as  pathological  dislike  for  touching  wool  and  silk.  I beg 
the  reader  to  imagine  that  episode,  the  death  of  the  little 
brother  who  snatched  an  object  from  our  hysterical  patient 
and  in  so  doing,  fell  into  a tub  of  hot  water,  so  that  the  reader 
may  share  in  the  interpretation  of  the  following  fragment  of 
analysis : 

[Wool.]  “Wool  bites.  I could  never  put  on  woolen  stoek- 

* Freud,  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p.  220. 


ASSOCIATION  TEST 


433 


ings.  I wept  when  I had  to  put  them  on.  This  peculiarity  I 
had  from  a little  child,  like  many  children.” 

[Wool.]  “Disagreeable,  thick.  When  one's  nails  are 
freshly  cut,  it  clings  to  them.”  (End  of  the  session.  Next 
time:) 

[Wool.]  4 ‘ It  is  always  so  hot  in  it,  in  stockings  and  dresses.  ’ ’ 
(The  father  entered  and  gave  information.  Next  session:) 

[Wool.]  “I  cannot  wear  it,  not  touch  it.  It  is  rather  be- 
cause of  the  dress.  ” (Ambiguous.)  [Little  dress.]  “Small. 
I mean  rather  a child’s  dress  such  as  quite  small  children 
wear.  ’ ’ 

[Imagine  one.]  “Yes.  It  is  white.  I do  not  know  whether 
it  belongs  to  a boy  or  a girl.”  [White,  small  child’s  dress.*] 
“I  see  one  before  me  on  a body.  I see  no  head,  however.  I 
see  the  dress  lying  down.  On  the  same  body  are  gray  stock- 
ings.” 

[The  body.]  “Yes,  it  would  be  horribly  unpleasant  if  it 
were  wet.  If  it  were  so  tightly  wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes 
and  woolen  things.  It  would  be  hot.” 

[Thus  you  phantasy  the  body  of  a little  child  lying  with 
small  white  dress,  the  head  invisible,  and  you  imagine:  if  it 
were  wet,  hot  and  tightly  wrapped;  now?]  (Long  pause.) 
“Nothing.  Perhaps  I was  once  so.”  [May  there  not  be  an- 
other bit  of  reality,  this  wet,  tightly  dressed,  hot  little  body?] 
“You  certainly  mean  my  little  brother  but  I do  not  think  so. 
The  little  body  which  I see,  is  much  smaller  and  younger.” 

[Have  you  had  this  phantasy  long?]  “No,  only  to-day. 
No,  also  at  the  last  hour  when  you  said  wool.  ’ ’ 

[Where  is  the  child?]  “On  a table.  I was  told  once  that 
when  quite  a small  child,  I rolled  from  a table  but  was  not 
hurt.  At  that  time,  I probably  had  on  a little  dress  and 
swaddling  clothes  like  the  child  that  I imagine.  Perhaps  I 
rolled  off  by  myself  because  I was  thick,  perhaps  someone  gave 
me  a push.  Perhaps  father  had  to  lay  me  down  to  dry  me 
and  did  not  attend  to  me  properly  in  so  doing.” 

*If  a manifest  object  is  described  more  precisely,  one  has  the  newly 
given  characteristics  apperceived. 


434 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


The  mother  confirmed  later  that  they  had  to  dress  the 
scalded  little  brother  wet  and  wrap  him  up  thickly.  The 
daughter  thinks  she  recalls  this  sight.  On  the  day  of  the  acci- 
dent, the  little  boy  did  not  wear  woolen  stockings. 

It.  seems  to  me  that  without  further  experiences,  according 
to  our  logical  arrangement,  all  possible  interpretations  of  this 
material  are  admissible. 

With  the  “cathartic”  forestage  of  psychoanalysis  (Breuer), 
one  might  say,  the  tragic  accident  acted  like  a foreign  body. 
The  phantasy  proved  then  something  like  this : it  happened  to 
the  little  brother  only  as  to  yourself.  You  too  were  allowed 
to  fall.  That  is  only  fate. 

Janet  might  assume  under  such  circumstances,  so  far  as  he 
considers  a counter-suggestion  as  healing,  “Your  little  brother 
was  not  dead,  he  only  lay  there  like  yourself.” 

In  accordance  with  a later  expression  of  Freud’s,  one  may 
speak  of  a withholding  of  affect,  but  our  little  patient  showed 
no  sorrow  over  the  fatal  accident,  while  the  somnambulistic 
repetition  of  the  scene  in  the  laundry,  like  the  convulsions,  be- 
trays the  powerful  impression. 

One  might,  if  one  knew  no  other  facts,  think  with  Stekel 
of  repression  of  primary  hate.  If  one  notes  that  the  girl  is 
jealous  of  her  celebrated  sister  and  her  favored  brother,  then 
the  most  superficial  interpretation  runs  something  like  this: 
“May  it  go  with  me  as  punishment  for  my  hate  and  my  impious 
joy  as  with  the  unfortunate  brother ! I was  indeed  once  near 
to  it!”  With  this  interpretation  agrees  the  fatigue  which  al- 
ways symbolizes,  where  it  is  psychogenic,  being  tired  of  love, 
thus  being  tired  of  life.  Freud  confirms  the  finding  that  in 
apathy,  love  and  hate  often  inhibit  each  other.* 

Adler  too  would  be  in  a position  to  see  his  theory  of  the 
neurosis  as  a result  of  a complex  of  inferiority  organically  con- 
ditioned, confirmed  in  this  case.  The  girl  actually  felt  help- 
less against  her  brother  and  let  him  have  everything  without 
the  slightest  resistance.  Later,  she  considered  herself  dis- 

* Freud,  Bemerkungen  (1.  e.  Fall  v.  Zwangsneurose.  Jahrb.  I,  p.  415. 
Pfister,  Analyt.  Unters.  ti.  Hass  u.  Versohnung,  p.  46. 


SUMMARY  OF  ANALYSIS 


435 


agreeable  and  in  so  doing,  did  herself  an  injustice.  By  the 
fear  of  contact,  she  secured  herself  against  the  violent  torment 
of  the  memory  of  the  creature  who  made  the  most  of  his  weak- 
ness, regardless  of  everything  and  compelled  tenderness,  since 
that  little  brother  on  account  of  nervous  (epileptic?)  pheno- 
mena, enjoyed  special  attention. 

Freud  could  find  his  “nuclear  complex,”  the  “family  ro- 
mance” corroborated.  For  the  little  brother  did  actually 
block  the  way  to  the  parents’  love.  Therewith,  the  “incest- 
uous root”  would  be  unearthed. 

Jung  would  be  in  a position  to  consider  the  phantasy  figure 
as  libido-symbol : The  patient  wishes  to  assert  herself  in  real- 
ity by  sacrificing  herself  as  a little  child,  i.  e.  her  infantilism. 

At  the  time  of  the  analysis  of  this  case,  I was  just  making 
the  acquaintance  of  Freud  and  expected  the  cure  from  ‘ ‘ abre- 
action,” from  the  affect-laden  conversation.  Nevertheless,  I 
did  not  neglect  to  emphasize  strongly  the  error  of  the  feeling  of 
inferiority  conditioned  on  infantilism,  the  possession  of  abun- 
dant love  on  the  side  of  excellent  parents  and  the  right,  as  well 
as  the  possibility,  of  making  herself  properly  efficient.  Thus 
I made  good  in  part  as  consoling  and  counseling  pastor  what  I 
lacked  as  analyst.  At  all  events,  the  phobia  disappeared  from 
that  hour  and  the  other  symptoms  were  soon  overcome. 

I would  call  attention  here  to  the  fact  that  cure  does  not 
guarantee  the  correctness  of  the  analysis,  as  the  results  of  vari- 
ous interpreters  and  places  of  pilgrimage  and  charlatans  tes- 
tify. This  fact  has  been  emphasized  from  remotest  times. 

The  reader  will  see  from  our  example  how  difficult  it  is, 
under  certain  circumstances,  to  obtain  absolutely  reliable  in- 
terpretations or  to  take  a position  in  the  successive  theses  of  the 
leaders  of  analysis. 

In  consolation,  one  may  point  out  that  not  everything  de- 
pends on  the  particular  interpretation.  The  unsolved  conflict 
manifests  itself  again  and  again  and  gives  occasion  for  cor- 
rection. It  often  happens  that  an  uninterpreted  symbol  keeps 
reappearing  with  obstinate  persistency  until  the  right  explana- 
tion succeeds  and  a better  outlet  for  the  life-force  is  found. 


CHAPTER  XV 


SUPPLEMENTARY  METHODS 
1.  External  Aids 

In  the  beginning,  Freud  made  use  of  a little  artifice  when  the 
flow  of  associations  stopped,  which  he  later  abandoned:  he 
assured  the  patient  that  the  memory  which  would  come  at  the 
moment  he  laid  his  hand  on  his  brow  would  be  the  right  one.* 
He  gave  up  this  tedious  method,  however.  I attempted  to 
coax  out  an  association  by  promising  that  it  would  come  im- 
mediately after  I had  counted  three,  since  actual  touching  the 
patient,  because  of  the  transference  to  be  discussed  later, 
seemed  to  me  from  the  begimiing  to  work  unfavorably.  This 
forcing  also  is  superfluous.  There  are  better  means  of  over- 
coming the  resistance. 

Even  to-day,  Freud  and  other  analysts,  chiefly  for  reasons 
of  quietness,  have  the  patient  lie  on  a couch  and  seat  them- 
selves at  the  patient’s  head  in  order  not  to  be  seen.  Freud 
asserts  in  recommending  this  method : it  has  historic  meaning 
as  a remnant  of  the  hypnotic  treatment,  from  which,  psycho- 
analysis developed,  it  spares  the  analyst  the  tiresome  condition 
of  being  stared  at,  it  guards  the  patient  against  the  danger  of 
interpreting  the  mien  of  his  analyst.!  Stekel  and  many  others 
have  given  up  this  practice  and  offer  the  visitor  a chair  or  arm- 
chair. I have  even  analyzed  pupils  with  great  success  while 
walking  with  them,  since  facts  sprang  up  which  would  have 
been  sought  in  vain  in  a room.  For  the  pedagogues,  having  the 
pupil  seated  is  decidedly  the  method  of  choice. % The  recum- 

* Freud,  ti.  Psa.,  p.  19. 

f Freud,  Weitere  Fatschliige  zur  Technik  der  Psychoanalyse.  Inter- 
nal:. Zschr.  f.  arztl.  Psa.  I,  p.  10. 

t In  connection  with  Freud’s  arguments,  it  should  be  noted:  A mere 
historical  memento  of  the  hypnotic  period  has  no  great  value.  For  a 

436 


HYPNOSIS 


437 


bent  position  produces  anxiousness  and  phantasies  in  many 
patients  which  must  first  be  overcome.  Girls  are  embarrassed 
and  are  afraid  to  lie  on  the  sofa  before  their  teacher  even 
when  they  do  it  unhesitatingly  before  their  physician.  Most 
of  them  feel  themselves  placed  in  a subservient,  helpless  posi- 
tion. Sexual  phantasies  are  easily  aroused.  Very  important 
for  the  decision  is  the  role  which  one  imputes  to  the  analyst  for 
the  educational  process.  Hence,  I am  of  the  opinion : the 
natural  conversational  position,  in  which  one  sees  every  move- 
ment best,  is  probably  the  one  most  to  be  recommended  to  peda- 
gogues. 

2.  Hypnosis 

Forel,  Frank*  and  other  psychiatrists  who  agree  with  the 
analysis  in  the  main,  find  fault  because  hypnosis  has  been  given 
up.  I cannot  accept  this  view  for  the  following  reasons : 

1.  Hypnosis  is  not  successful  in  all  cases.  Freud,  himself 
a master  of  the  technique,  whose  appreciation  went  so  far  that 
he  translated  into  German  f two  works  of  his  teacher,  Bern- 
heim,  calls  it  “a  capricious  and  as  one  might  say,  mystical 
aid.”  t 

2.  Hypnosis  does  not  penetrate  as  deeply  by  far  as  a cor- 
rect psychoanalytic  treatment  in  the  waking  state.  He  who 
compares  the  analyses  of  Frank  with  those  of  Freud,  Ferenczi, 
Rank,  Jung,  Riklin,  Maeder  and  other  real  analysts,  sees  at 
once  that  the  former  is  satisfied  with  an  entirely  superficial  an- 
alysis. This  may  suffice  for  the  lighter  cases  but  is  insuf- 
ficient for  severe  ones. 

3.  Hypnosis  penetrates  only  to  the  symptom  while  psycho- 

great  number  of  analysts,  being-stared-at  is  not  in  the  least  disagree- 
able, as  little  as  in  daily  conversation.  The  actual  expression  of  the 
analyst  who  knows  how  to  control  himself,  is  less  disturbing  than  the 
artificial  ones.  As  it  is  not  the  real  father  but  the  father-image  which 
injures,  so  with  the  analyst  and  the  image  of  him  created  by  the  pa- 
tient’s wishes  under  certain  circumstances. 

* L.  Frank,  Die  Psychoanalyse,  Munich,  1909. 

f H.  Bernheim,  Die  Suggestion  u.  i.  Heilwirkung.  Further:  Neue 
Studien  ii.  Hypnotismus,  Suggestion  u.  Psychotherapie.  Both  from  the 
press  of  Deuticke,  Leipzig  and  Vienna. 

$ Freud,  Ii.  Psa.,  p.  18. 


438 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


analysis  aims  at  a thorough  educational  work  which  makes  all 
restricted  life-energy  available  for  ethical  purposes.  For  us 
pedagogues,  the  pathological  symptom  is  often  a matter  of 
secondary  importance.  We’ recognize  a hundredfold  that  it  is 
great  good  fortune  for  a person  when  he  is  afflicted  with  a mal- 
ady which  compels  him  to  search  out  the  deeper-lying  inner 
conflict  which  muddles  his  whole  attitude  toward  life  and  duty 
and  to  relieve  it  in  the  sense  of  an  ethical,  often  religious,  solu- 
tion. This  noblest  gain  is  largely  lost  in  hypnosis  which  aims 
at  an  external  result.  The  deep,  inner  dissension  remains, 
nevertheless,  and  often  creates  new,  perhaps  worse,  disturb- 
ances which  may  however,  escape  the  attention  of  the  physi- 
cian but  are  therefore  so  much  the  more  important  for  the  edu- 
cator and  pastor.  Especially  for  autoanalysis  and  self-educa- 
tion as  a whole,  the  follower  of  the  cathartic  method  with  his 
hypnosis  accomplishes  far  less  than  the  psychoanalyst. 

4.  The  results  of  hypnosis  are  also  less  permanent  than 
those  of  psychoanalysis. 

5.  The  analytic  physicians  also  practice  hypnosis,  probably 
even  to-day,  and  indeed  often  the  light  hypnosis  recommended 
by  Frank  * as  well  as  occasionally,  the  deeper.  Thus,  they  have 
the  best  opportunity  to  make  comparisons.  On  the  basis  of 
their  numerous  experiences,  they  apply  hypnosis  only  to  those 
individuals  whose  mental  level,  judged  less  in  regard  to  knowl- 
edge than  to  insight,  is  not  high  enough  for  analysis,  or  where 
the  time  for  proper  analysis  is  lacking,  but  they  do  not  con- 
ceal the  fact  that  the  result  is  far  less  thorough  and  perma- 
nent. If  they  could  attain  the  goal  by  the  shorter  way  of 
hypnosis,  they  would  do  so  gladly,  but  as  a matter  of  fact,  they 
obtain  by  following  Forel’s  and  Frank’s  recommendations  only 
such  superficial  analyses  as  these  investigators  themselves,  and 
in  the  interest  of  their  patients,  cannot  and  will  not  be  satis- 
fied with  these. 

* Frank,  Psa.  p.  20.  Since  Frank  emphasizes  that  this  light  grade 
of  hypnotism  distinguishes  him  from  Breuer  and  Freud,  it  should  be 
pointed  out  that  these  too  expressly  apply  the  “light  hypnosis”  (Stu- 
dien  14). 


SUGGESTION 


439 


Hence  I consider  the  hypnotic  position,  which  for  the  rest 
holds  the  “abreaction  of  affects”  as  the  vital  point,  as  out 
of  date,  although  it  can  certainly  do  much  good  in  practice,  but 
in  scientific  investigation,  much  less.  At  all  events,  we  teach- 
ers, out  of  consideration  for  our  internal  and  external  compe- 
tence, (medical  law)  will  not  meddle  with  hypnosis. 

3.  Suggestion 

(a)  PAUL  DUBOIS 

It  is  well  known  that  Paul  Dubois,  neurologist  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berne,  has  produced  the  valuable  proof  that  many 
organic  maladies  and  most  nervous  attacks  depend  on  mental 
stimuli.*  According  to  him,  therapy  depends  on  the  law: 
“The  nervous  patient  is  on  the  way  to  health  as  soon  as  he 
has  the  conviction  that  he  can  be  cured ; he  is  to  be  considered 
as  cured  on  the  day  when  he  thinks  himself  cured.!  The 
means  for  attaining  this  “fixed  idea”  are  fairly  indifferent: 
religious  faith,  suggestion  by  charlatans,  suggestion  by  medica- 
ments and  physical  agencies,  scientific  psychotherapy  by  the 
education  of  reason,  all  help  if  they  bring  about  that  fixed 
idea.J  Religious  faith  would  be  the  strongest  prophylactic 
against  the  diseases  mentioned  if  it  occasioned  a true  Christ- 
like  Stoicism  (202).  Rational  psychotherapy  applies  itself 
simply  to  the  healthy  human  intelligence  of  the  subject. ||  One 
must  know  how  to  become  master  of  the  patient  at  a stroke  and 
really  inoculate  him  with  the  fixed  idea  that  he  will  be  healed.fl 
Everything  depends  on  the  power  of  the  conviction.  § 

A simpler  method  than  this  suggestive  taking  possession  and 
persuasion  is  scarcely  conceivable.  The  search  for  causes 
disappears:  the  physician  works  according  to  the  same  prin- 

* P.  Dubois,  Die  Psychoneurosen  u.  i.  psych.  Behandlg.  Bern,  1905, 

p.  101. 

t Same,  p.  202. 

t Same,  p.  202. 

||  Same,  p.  214. 

IF  Same,  p.  223. 

S Same,  p.  427. 


440 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


ciple  as  the  charlatan  and  Christian  Science  healer,  the  Zionist 
or  Mormon  sects,  except  that  the  former  appeals  more  to 
healthy  reason.  In  this  concurrence,  the  poor  physician 
plainly  often  shows  up  to  disadvantage,  since,  “the  healthy 
human  reason”  in  the  majority  of  people  is  by  no  means  the 
strongest  power.  Those  individuals  of  weaker  intellectual 
gifts  would  do  better,  according  to  Dubois,  in  their  nervous 
troubles  to  go  direct  to  charlatans  and  religious  therapeutists, 
many  of  whom  are  given  to  a miserable  swindling,  indeed  it 
would  prove  the  fraudulent  advertising,  on  account  of  its 
suggestive  effect,  to  be  an  actual  benefit. 

No  one  can  deny  the  results  of  suggestion.  Every  Chris- 
tian, Buddhist  and  Mahommedan  place  of  pilgrimage,  every 
priest  of  fetichism  and  quack  afford  proof  in  abundance.  But 
behold  the  reverse  side : 

1.  In  the  application  of  suggestion,  one  experiences  many 
relapses.  “Only  too  often  are  the  symptoms  banished  for 
only  a short  time,  the  suffering  likewise  glossed  over.”* 
These  experiences  which  soon  bring  so  many  wonder-workers 
and  shrines  into  discredit  when  they  are  not  kept  silent,  may 
also  be  read  in  Jesus’  words:  Mat.  xii,  43-45,  “When  the 
unclean  spirit  is  gone  out  of  a man  . . . and  when  he  is  come 
. . . then  goeth  he  and  taketh  with  himself  seven  other  spirits 
more  wicked  than  himself  . . . and  the  last  state  of  that  man 
is  worse  than  the  first.” 

2.  Many  troubles  which  cannot  be  cured  by  the  method  of 
Dubois  and  religious  therapy  may  be  overcome  with  analytic 
aid.  Not  a single  victim  of  obsessional  neurosis  could  Dubois 
cure,  only  a decided  improvement  could  he  obtain  (429),  while 
I have  observed  a long  list  of  cures  by  pedagogic  analysis  of 
this  highly  interesting  and  often  frightful  malady.  Further, 
patients  who  have  gone  away  uncured  from  recognized  Chris- 
tian healers  in  spite  of  strongest  effort,  I have  seen  healed 
by  analysis. 

3.  The  application  of  the  Dubois  method  is  very  painful  to 

* J.  J.  Putnam,  U.  Aetiol.  u.  Behandlg.  d.  Psychoneurosen,  Zbl.  I,  p. 
140. 


CRITICISM  OF  SUGGESTION 


441 


teacher  and  pupil  during  its  duration.  The  monotonous  asser- 
tion of  the  psychotherapeutist  by  authority  becomes,  in  the 
face  of  maladies  countless  times  persisting  unchanged,  farce 
and  torture.  The  results  are  moderate.  Beside  the  method 
of  Dubois,  always  driving  at  the  same  “fixed  idea,”  the  an- 
alytic method  is  as  a rule  exceedingly  mild.*  My  experi- 
ences after  all  kinds  of  disappointments  (I  practised  Dubois’ 
method  as  convinced  adherent)  have  made  me  very  reserved 
toward  the  practice. 

4.  Dubois  proceeds  to  attack  only  the  symptom  and  a single 
condition,  which  is  usually  not  present  in  reality  at  all,  namely, 
a false  theory  concerning  the  nature  of  nervous  maladies, 
while  analysis  seeks  the  actual  seat  of  the  trouble.!  I shall 
not  enter  upon  the  astoundingly  one-sided  rationalistic  psy- 
chology of  Dubois. 

5.  The  assertion  that  the  psychoneurotic  malady  is  removed 
by  the  belief  in  the  possibility  of  being  cured,  is  absolutely 
incorrect.  With  the  strongest  faith,  we  often  see  the  disease 
persist,  while  with  psychoanalysis,  we  often  see  a cure  result 
in  doubting  individuals. 

6.  The  stoicism  recommended  by  Dubois,  with  its  tendency 
toward  introversion,  signifies  usually  a bad  canalization  of 
instinct.  Above  we  saw  stoicism  as  symptom  and  cause  of 
disease  (93). 

The  suggestive  suppression  of  a symptom  under  threats  and 
punishments  is  obviously  dangerous  in  the  highest  degree.  A 
mother  told  me  triumphantly  that  she  had  driven  out  by  stern- 
ness a nervous  tic  (twitching  of  the  face)  in  her  daughter. 
Forthwith,  three  new  ones  appeared. 

* The  assertion  that  psychoanalysis  is  painful,  is  not,  according  to  my 
experience,  true.  Only  clumsy  boring  and  compelling  acts  painfully. 
Also  the  excitements  come  more  at  the  beginning  of  the  analysis.  But 
he  who  will  console,  need  not  be  disturbed  by  the  fact  that  the  telling 
of  the  causes  of  suffering  causes  excitement.  Almost  always,  the  analy- 
sis brings  either  immediately  or  after  the  first  hours,  relief. 

f Dubois  leaves  the  causal  need  of  the  normal  psychologist  entirely 
unsatisfied.  He  does  not  once  hint  what  the  meaning  may  be  when  a 
patient  with  obsessional  neurosis  will  not  venture  to  stick  his  hand  into 
his  portemonnaie  (p.  427)  etc. 


443 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


(b)  suggestion  in  psychoanalysis 

(a)  Unintentional  Suggestion. 

Obviously,  the  psychoanalyst  cannot  exclude  sugestion.* 
Profession,  examination,  preconceived  opinion  already  suggest. 
It  is  known  how  powerfully  the  consultation-room  of  the  den- 
tist works  in  this  direction. 

(/?)  Intentional  Suggestion. 

1.  In  the  preliminary  stage  of  the  actual  analysis  (the  con- 
stellation). That  the  attitude  belongs  to  the  fundamental 
rules  of  analysis  has  been  shown. 

2.  In  the  actual  analytic  procedure.  Here  the  suggestion 
cannot  be  too  carefully  avoided  by  tone  and  gesture,  par- 
ticularly also  the  autosuggestion.  One  must  also  guard  against 
the  theoretical  instruction  which  one  must  give,  dictating  the 
associations,  since  the  consideration  for  these  instructions,  the 
expectation  of  their  coming  true  or  the  hope  of  their  prov- 
ing false,  influence  the  direction  of  the  associations.  The 
sharper  the  patient  has  his  attention  fixed  on  his  manifestation 
or  his  free  rapport,  so  much  the  more  surely  does  this  foreign 
suggestion  recede. 

3.  In  the  synthetic  part  of  the  analytic  procedure.  Freud 
considers  it  proper  for  the  educator  to  give  suggestions  in- 
tentionally and  consciously  to  point  out  life-paths  and  invite 
to  the  following  of  these.  He  should  not  compel,  however, 
but  rather  allow  the  love  of  the  pupil  (transference)  to  act.t 
How  this  suggestion  has  to  work  in  the  new  canalization  of 
the  instinct  will  be  shown  later. 

Nevertheless  the  analysis  is  differentiated  from  the  sugges- 
tion technique  by  the  avoidance  of  strong  pressure.  It  merely 
coaxes  and  invites.  Herein  it  is  an  exact  contrast  to  Dubois. 
How  often  does  one  experience  that  a symptom  disappears 
without  the  slightest  persuasion,  while  before,  it  persisted 
against  all  pressure  in  spite  of  strong  faith.  This  is  particu- 
larly important  for  moral  improvement.  That  which  cannot 

* Bleuler,  Jahrb.  II,  p.  642. 

f Freud,  Z.  Dynamik  d.  Ubertragung.  Zbl.  II,  p.  172. 


DUBOIS  AND  FREUD 


443 


be  attained  by  rack  and  thumbscrew,  since  a neurotic  obses- 
sion exists,  psychoanalysis  often  attains  without  any  violence 
and  self-torture. 


(C)  DUBOIS  AND  FREUD 

(a)  In  comparison  with  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (Law 
and  Gospels). 

Dubois  endeavors  to  force  a fixed  idea.  For  many  individ- 
uals, the  forced  belief  means  a heavy  burden.  The  impulses 
forcibly  given  signify  a new  ‘ ‘ Thou  shalt.  ’ ’ Inversely,  Freud 
wishes  to  take  away  a burden  already  present.  Dubois  shovels 
coal  into  the  furnace  of  the  leaky  steam-boat  which  is  half 
filled  with  water;  Freud  plugs  the  hole  and  pumps  the  water 
out.  Then  it  can  be  seen  whether  coal  is  still  needed. 

Dubois  represents  the  pedagogy  of  the  Old  Testament, 
Freud,  that  of  the  New.  There:  “Thou  shalt!”  here: 
“Thou  mayest!”  There,  new  demand,  here,  salvation. 
There,  command,  here,  love. 

(0)  In  their  Relation  to  Buddhism  and  Christianity. 

Dubois  lays  great  stress  on  renunciations:  “The  stoicism, 
if  it  would  really  lead  to  health,  cannot  rest  on  mere  auto- 
suggestion . . . rather  it  must  be  founded  on  the  enduring 
fundamental  propositions  of  philosophy  which  can  serve  as 
plumb-line  for  the  whole  life.  ’ ’ * Thus  the  renunciation  of 
illusions  is  certainly  necessary,  hence  stoicism  certainly  can- 
not be  the  final  word.  Jesus  does  not,  like  Buddha,  recom- 
mend the  cessation  of  thinking,  feeling  and  volition  but  rather 
the  maximal  self-efficiency  in  the  sense  of  sublimation,  yet  with- 
out the  negation  of  the  primary  instinctive  life.  Now,  Dubois 
is  certainly  far  distant  from  Buddha’s  absolute  introversion, 
but  he  stands  decidedly  nearer  to  it  than  psychoanalysis,  to 
which,  the  most  abundant  instinctive  activity  in  the  sense  of 
sublimation  and  an  ethically  valuable  primary  eroticism  seem 
to  be  the  right  conceptions. 

* Dubois,  Psychon.  p.  404.  In  his  book,  “Selbsterziehung,”  ( Bern 
1909),  Dubois  praises  more  the  freeing  from  egoism  (for  example,  pp. 
107-120,261,267). 


444 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


(y)  In  their  Positions  toward  Authority  and  Freedom. 

While  Dubois  leads  his  medical  authority  into  the  field  full 
tilt,  Freud  allows  the  patients  to  find  the  truth  themselves  as 
much  as  possible.  The  former  holds  his  patients  in  the  father- 
complex,  the  latter  sets  them  free.  The  former  wishes  to  free 
by  a “ fixed  idea,  ’ ’ the  latter  by  re-education  to  have  the  patient 
find  for  himself  the.  law  of  his  own  inner  self  and  the  best 
possible  realization  of  his  capabilities.  So  in  this  regard,  the 
two  men  represent  the  difference  between  heteronomy  and  au- 
tonomy or  between  Catholicism  and  Protestantism.  Thus,  the 
beautiful  word,  self-education,  has  with  Freud  a much  deeper 
significance  than  with  Dubois:  The  man  does  not  force  and 
persuade  himself  to  a larger  life,  he  loves  himself  into  it. 
Dubois  points  in  the  direction  of  resignation  and  asceticism,  of 
autoerotieism,  Freud  in  the  direction  of  transference  and  sub- 
limation, Jung  quite  similarly  in  that  of  the  independent  com- 
prehension of  the  individual  law  of  life,  to  the  chief  demands 
of  which,  love  for  others  belongs. 

4.  The  Dislocation 

In  contrast  to  Dubois  and  most  psychotherapeutists  who 
provide  for  the  patients  in  sanatoria,  psychoanalysis  leaves  its 
pupils  in  their  civic  relations  and  at  their  work.  Further,  it 
places  little  emphasis  on  the  diet.  While  many  physicians 
wish  to  lead  their  patients  to  health  by  forced  feeding  and 
others  by  fasting  and  sometimes  also  succeed,  Freud  imposes 
only  rational  life-conduct.  We  know  that  even  severe  physical 
lassitude  can  arise  from  mental  causes  (181),  as  in  other  cases, 
it  can  arise  from  overwork  or  physical  defects. 

If  bad  relations  exist  at  home,  however,  or  an  uncommonly 
strong  father-,  mother-  or  sister-complex  prevails,  then,  re- 
moval from  home  facilitates  the  treatment,  indeed  it  is  often 
an  actual  prerequisite.  I have  repeatedly  seen  convalescence, 
rendered  possible  by  the  analysis,  immediately  appear  after  the 
patient’s  departure.  Very  often  the  meddling  of  foolish  peo- 
ple forms  an  obstacle  which  must  be  met.  Strong  natures 
find  the  new  adaptation  to  reality,  the  solution  of  the  inner 


PSYCHOANALYSIS  AND  OTHER  METHODS  445 


conflict,  the  actual  utilization  of  the  libido,  even  in  very  un- 
favorable relations. 

The  change  of  surroundings,  often  health-bringing  for 
mentally  ailing  individuals,  even  without  analysis,  oftentimes 
assists  the  analytic  work  because  it  imposes  a new  attitude 
toward  life.  Still,  it  is  usually  superfluous. 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  remarked  again  and  emphasized 
that  Freud  does  not  at  all  mean  to  say  that  psychoanalysis  is 
always  and  in  all  eases  the  only  therapy  possible  or  necessary.* 
On  the  contrary,  he  and  probably  everyone  who  has  mastered 
this  and  the  other  methods,  is  of  the  opinion  that  “it  acts 
most  thoroughly,  has  the  most  far-reaching  results  and  is  the 
method  by  which  one  attains  the  most  intensive  changes  in 
the  patient. t 

Obviously,  psychoanalysis  presupposes  the  previously  known 
pedagogic  methods  and  merely  joins  them  in  learning  and 
teaching. 

* E.  Hitschmann,  Freuds  Neurosenlehre,  Leipzig  and  Vienna  1911,  p. 
117  f.  Eng.  translation  in  Monograph  Series  of  the  Journal  of  Nervous 
and  Mental  Disease,  N.  Y.  Freud,  U.  Psychotherapie,  Kl.  Schriften  I,  p. 

p.  211. 

f Hitschmann,  p.  118. 


SECTION  II 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC 
PROBING 

CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  ABREACTION 

“We  found  to  our  great  surprise  that  the  individual  hys- 
terical symptoms  immediately  disappeared,  and  that  without 
return,  when  we  had  succeeded  in  awakening  to  full  vividness 
the  memory  of  the  causative  event,  therewith  also  arousing  the 
accompanying  affect,  and  provided  that  the  patient  described 
the  event  in  the  most  detailed  manner  possible  and  gave  verbal 
expression  to  the  affect.”*  With  this  sentence,  Breuer  and 
Freud  describe  in  their  first  communication  their  method  of 
treatment.  In  so  doing,  they  proceeded  on  the  assumption 
that  the  hysterical  individuals  suffer,  in  large  part,  from 
reminiscences  which  are  pent-up  in  the  unconscious  like  for- 
eign bodies,  because  they  are  neither  discharged  by  physical 
movements  of  expression  nor  in  normal  manner  by  associative 
elaboration.  That  which  remains  behind  at  that  period,  the 
analysis  has  to  search  out.  It  aids  in  this  discharge,  or  as  we 
say,  in  this  “abreaction.”  f 

The  experiences  of  almost  two  decades  have  taught  us,  how- 
ever, that  this  abreaction  is  not  exactly  correct,  though  the 
original  assumption  to-day  still  seems  intelligible.  In  order  to 
gain  lucidity,  we  will  proceed  from  our  insight  into  the  nature 
of  the  repression  and  fixation. 

* Breuer  und  Freud,  Studien,  p.  4. 

f Same,  p.  13. 


446 


THE  ABREACTION 


447 


1.  Necessity  for  the  Abreaction 

If  an  idea  accompanied  by  strong  emotion  is  repressed  and 
fortified  by  its  autistic  gain  of  pleasure,  the  instinct  to  which 
this  idea  belongs,  suffers,  within  a certain  circle  of  activity,  a 
damming  up  which  often  persists  for  a lifetime.  One  finds 
many  elderly  people  who  have  possessed  their  hysteria,  for 
example,  vertigo,  automatisms  of  the  muscles  of  the  jaw, 
astasia,  etc.,  for  decades.  Freud  makes  a comparison  from 
Jensen’s  “Gradiva”  which  illustrates  this  state  of  affairs 
beautifully:  the  repression,  he  says,  resembles  the  burial  of 
Pompeii.*  That  which  was  buried,  remains  unchanged  under 
the  thick  covering.  Upon  excavation,  it  disintegrates.  Thus 
the  repressed  material  persists,  the  fixed  instincts  can  develop 
no  farther.  The  analysis  first  creates  the  possibility  of  free- 
ing the  imprisoned  instinct.  Frequently,  however,  neurotic 
symptoms  disappear  without  analytic  assistance.  Of  course 
this  is  far  from  saying  that  the  attached  force  with  its  full 
contribution  of  energy  has  been  conducted  to  a free  life  de- 
velopment. Rather,  the  repressed  ideas  persist  or  more  cor- 
rectly expressed,  the  instincts  fixed  at  one  place  (the  complex) 
by  repression  (negative)  and  automatism  (positive)  in  their 
relative  fixation,  find  new  channels,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, highly  valuable  ones,  in  order  to  expend  their  energy. 

Thus  for  example,  a religious  cure  can  eliminate  the  patho- 
logical phenomena.  In  this  case,  the  demand  of  the  instinct, 
which  is  in  conflict  with  the  internal  and  external  forces,  is 
sublimated.  The  retention  of  the  repression  is  no  longer  neces- 
sary and  possible  because  the  demand  of  the  instinct  when 
sublimated,  is  satisfied. 

Or  the  dammed-up  instinct  breaks  a way  into  reality  and 
knows  how  to  enjoy  itself  there.  Hysteria,  resulting  from 
burning  desire  without  gratification,  may  be  extinguished  in 
marriage. 

Or  the  repressing  force  may  be  released.  The  onanist  finds 
that  his  spinal  cord  is  not  destroyed,  the  adulterer  finds  an 

* Freud,  Gradiva,  p.  42. 


448  THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 

easy  peace  of  mind  in  the  promise  of  good  conduct.  Since, 
according  to  our  findings,  the  inner  motives  for  repression  and 
fixation  are  more  important  than  the  external  ones,  so  the 
overcoming  of  the  repressing  force  by  pastoral  instruction  is 
to  be  named  among  the  best  methods  making  for  mental  health. 
Hence  the  indisputable  results  of  the  consoling  Christian 
Science  which  combats  anxiety,  of  the  invoking  of  the  saints 
and  similar  religious  healing  forces.  Also  the  barrier  which 
causes  the  forward-longing  instinct  to  ever  regress  into  in- 
fantilism may  be  surmounted  by  a moral  venture,  a strength- 
ening of  the  ethical  nature. 

All  these  outcomes  are  possible,  without  the  unconscious  con- 
ditions having  been  previously  transferred  to  consciousness. 
Proceeding  from  such  experiences,  many  educators  hope  to 
get  along  without  analysis  and  to  eliminate  the  disturbance  of 
morals,  religion  or  health  by  simply  opening  new  channels. 

Whether  this  is  possible  cannot  be  decided  by  general  theo- 
retical construction  but  only  by  experience.  I am  constantly 
amazed  anew  at  those  numerous  educators,  neurologists  and 
psychiatrists  who,  on  the  one  hand,  discuss  with  extreme 
modesty,  indeed  with  evident  resignation,  the  possibilities  of 
their  professional  skill,  but  on  the  other  hand,  however,  an- 
nounce to  the  world  with  proud  plerophoria  that  psycho- 
analysis may  be  dispensed  with  in  all  cases. 

The  facts  decide.  They  afforded  us  the  proof  that  a great 
number  of  patients  whom  previous  methods,  applied  by  recog- 
nized physicians  and  educators  over  long  periods,  had  not 
helped,  were  cured  by  analysis. 

Let  us  examine  more  closely  the  non-analytic  release  of  pent- 
up  life-instinct  in  patients  and  healthy  individuals. 

The  religious  cures  have  done  good  to  countless  individuals 
and  made  them  happy,  healthy,  ethically  valuable  people. 
Where  this  end  has  been  accomplished,  no  unprejudiced  edu- 
cator, pastor  or  physician  will  urge  analysis.  But  do  we  not 
see  among  the  personalities  who  have  caused  the  needs  of  their 
complexes  to  flow  into  religious  channels,  besides  great  phe- 
nomena, an  immense  number  of  troubles  and  moral  defects? 


RELIGION  AND  REPRESSION 


449 


Innumerable  monks  and  nuns  suffer  from  severe  hysteria, 
obsessional  neurosis  or  other  tortures.  Countless  strictly  re- 
ligious men  and  women  get  into  awful  sadism  and  masochism 
so  that  the  history  of  religion  drips  with  blood.  One  needs 
think  only  of  the  burning  of  witches,  persecutions  of  heretics, 
wars  over  faith,  self-torture  even  to  suicide  (for  example, 
Saint  Elizabeth)  in  which  the  repressed  material  ever  emerged 
in  the  center  of  piety,  the  ghastly  deed  was  performed  in  the 
name  of  God!  Countless  persons  come  to  foolish,  immoral, 
bizarre  ideas,  to  orthodox  and  ceremonial  fanaticism,  in  which 
the  life-instinct  is  wasted  in  immoral,  unproductive  manner  in 
automatism.  Countless  more  fall  to  a great  narrowing  of  the 
mental  horizon,  other  multitudes  to  a weak  flight  from  the 
world,  a cowardly,  inefficient  attitude  toward  the  future  life 
which  leaves  this  one  desolate.  Religion,  grand  and  wonderful 
as  it  stands  before  us  in  its  pure  form,  often  changes,  accord- 
ing to  the  testimony  of  history,  from  a benefactress  to  a se- 
ducer and  instigator  of  grievous  injustice.  The  position  of 
Jesus  toward  marriage,  toward  neighbors,  toward  self-love 
show  that  he  denied  the  investing  of  all  love  in  God.  If  you 
will  do  God  the  highest  honor,  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 
This  is  His  profound  conception  of  the  destiny  of  the  life- 
instinct. 

Much  less  still,  can  the  direct  discharge  of  the  instinct  in 
sensuous  activity  save  people.  Freud  expressly  proves  that 
the  psychosexual  is  the  most  important.*  He  affords  the  proof 
that  the  highest  mental  powers  participate  in  sexuality  and 
seek  gratification  in  it.  He  has  shown  the  eminently  moral 
character  of  the  sexual  life  and  the  relatively  subordinate  im- 
portance of  the  animalistic  side  of  it  in  a manner  to  cause  every 
unprejudiced  ethicist  to  rejoice,  even  though  other  thoughts  of 
Freud  cannot  And  so  much  approbation. 

In  general,  the  change  in  the  life-relationships  can  happen 
so  favorably  that  the  life-instinct  ventures  out  of  its  subter- 
ranean hiding  place  into  the  life  struggle.  But  who  would 
wait  for  this  dispensation  coming  from  without?  Is  it  not 

* Freud,  U.  “wilde”  Psa.  Zbl.  I,  p.  92  ff. 


450 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


wiser  to  put  the  person  in  a position  to  frame  a useful  life 
with  the  means  at  his  disposal  ? 

Finally,  the  wisest  religious  and  moral  pastoral  training  is 
not  sufficient  in  severe  cases.  Indeed  Jesus  recognized  this 
fact  as  mentioned  on  page  440,  and  he  who  knows  the  founda- 
tions of  health  perceives  that  it  must  be  so.  The  skilled  an- 
alyst is  far  superior  to  the  best  non-analytic  pastoral  in- 
structor against  many  manifestations.  If  he  is  strongly 
religious  and  has  an  energetic  religious  person  to  deal  with,  a 
pure,  healthy  piety  will  probably  be  the  end  result  of  the 
treatment  while  much  morbid  religious  fanaticism  must  fall 
by  the  way. 

The  ethical  and  religious  demands,  the  admonition,  punish- 
ment, reward,  instruction  concerning  the  results  of  the  action, 
etc.,  are  nevertheless  entirely  ineffective  when  an  inner  fixation 
exists,  to  release  the  instinct.  If  one  speaks  to  certain  victims 
of  the  obsessional  neurosis,  who  suffer  from  a feeling  of  guilt, 
of  God’s  grace  and  forgiveness,  one  acts  like  a child  which 
would  wish  away  the  spots  of  light  on  the  wall  instead  of  re- 
moving the  source  of  the  light.  The  conscious  guilt  is  not  at 
all  the  real  one  (compare  above,  page  75  pathological  lying, 
page  76  kleptomania).  Or  if  one  wishes  to  convert  with 
Bible  and  reason  a person  who  wants  to  transfer  to  a bizarre, 
immoral  sect,  one  usually  accomplishes  little  because  the  actual 
forces  acting  in  that  piousness  lie  below  the  threshold  of  con- 
sciousness. I have  seen  many  persons  who  strained  every 
nerve  to  free  themselves  from  moral  defects  by  means  of  ascetic 
practices,  repentance  and  prayer,  accomplish  nothing  except 
doubt,  pathological  crippling  of  the  will  (abulia)  or  strength- 
ening of  the  vice.  Analysis  brought  them  salvation  without 
compulsion  and  torture. 

Therefore,  for  a great  number  of  moral,  religious  and  hy- 
gienic defects,  psychoanalysis  is  not  only  the  surest,  shortest 
and  relatively  pleasantest  method  of  treatment  but  indeed  the 
only  possible  and  hence  imperative  one  (compare  chapter  26). 


PROCESS  OF  ABREACTION 


461 


2.  The  Process  op  Abreaction 

(a)  The  abreaction  as  outlet  by  expressive  movement  and 
associative  connection. 

The  results  which  the  abreaction  is  meant  to  accomplish,  the 
telling  to  other  persons,  has  been  warmly  recommended  from 
antiquity  by  people  who  understood  human  nature.  Not  only 
the  New  Testament  and  Catholic  confessional  but  also  certain 
great  poets  have  so  treated  it.  Shakespeare  (Macbeth  V-l) 
testifies  as  we  heard : 

“Unnatural  deeds 

Do  breed  unnatural  troubles:  infected  minds 

To  their  deaf  pillows  will  discharge  their  secrets: 

More  needs  she  the  divine  than  the  physician.” 

Goethe  says: 

“The  disease  of  the  mind 

Most  easily  resolves  into  complaints  and  confidences.”  * 

To  Frau  von  Stein,  he  writes  on  Sept.  25,  1811:  “Yester- 
day evening  I did  a very  clever  feat.  Herder  was  all  the  time 
strained  to  the  most  hypochondriacal  state  over  everything 
unpleasant  which  had  happened  to  her  in  Carlsbad.  I had 
her  tell  and  confess  to  me  everything  improper  in  others  and 
herself  with  most  minute  details  and  results  and  finally  I ab- 
solved her  and  made  her  cheerful,  comprehensible  under  the 
formula  that  these  things  were  now  done  with  and  thrown  into 
the  depths  of  the  sea.  She  became  very  gay  over  it  and  is 
actually  cured.  ’ ’ t 

In  his  religio-psyehological  romance,  “Theobald  oder  die 
Sch warmer, “ $ which  is  highly  interesting,  Goethe’s  friend 
Jung,  called  Stilling,  describes  the  cure  of  a melancholic  hyster- 
ical person.  The  pastor  Bosius  converses  with  the  patient  in 
uncommonly  sympathetic  manner  and  guides  her  to  the  con- 

* Goethe,  Tasso,  III,  p.  2. 

t From  Stekel,  Angstzustande,  p.  7. 

% Heinrich  Stillung,  Theobald  oder  die  Schw&rmer.  Fr&nkf.  and 
Leipzig,  1802,  I,  p.  259  ff. 


452  THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 

ception  that  love  is  the  supreme  end  of  nature.  ‘ ‘ Everything 
loves  in  the  order  in  which  the  Creator  has  placed  it.”  “Are 
you  not  stirred  by  the  fact  that  the  Eternal  Love  pours  love 
into  all  creation?  What  do  you  understand  by  the  word, 
love?”  The  patient  answers : “Impelling  force  (instinct)  to 
union,  to  be  one  with  the  beloved.”  The  pastor  continues: 
“You  feel,  deep  in  your  soul,  the  instinct  for  union  with  some- 
thing which  you  love ; obstacles  which  stand  in  the  way  of  your 
love  make  you  shut-off  because  you  consider  them  insurmount- 
able ; hence  you  are  melancholic.  ” * He  expresses  funda- 
mentally the  whole  situation,  lets  the  girl  open  her  heart, 
cleverly  defends  the  rights  of  sensuality,  as  well  as  the 
sublime  significance  of  marriage  and  helps  her  to  obtain  the 
beloved,  f 

We  find  similar  confessional  efforts  in  the  writings  of 

* Same,  p.  264. 

f Jung-Stilling  has  the  correct  insight  into  the  nature  of  hysteria. 
He  has  his  pastor  say:  “Your  (the  patient’s)  weak  body  is  not  strong 
enough  to  bear  the  passion  which  burns  in  your  soul,  the  imagination 
busies  itself  unceasingly  with  the  beloved  object,  you  may  struggle 
against  it  as  you  will,  thereby  the  feeling  only  increases.  . . . When 
the  feelings  mount  higher  than  the  nervous  system,  already  weak- 
ened apart  from  this  by  many  pious  ideas,  can  bear,  then  a fever  must 
result.  As  soon,  however,  as  there  is  a fever,  the  cause  of  which,  as 
in  this  case,  can  be  removed  by  no  other  medicine  than  the  gratification 
of  the  love,  then  the  symptoms  of  the  fever  ever  continue,  these  again 
have  their  results  and  thus  the  malady  becomes  ever  more  complex.  . . . 
A girl  is  held  back  by  shame  from  speaking  of  that  which  principally 
engrosses  her  mind,  namely  of  her  beloved,  the  longing  for  him  re- 
mains ever  deeply  hidden;  he  who  does  not  know  of  this  circumstance, 
and  also  does  not  recognize  the  cause,  never  guesses  the  cause,  the 
physician  says:  the  person  is  hysterical,  that  is  about  the  same  as  say- 
ing, she  is  sick — something  which  everyone  sees.  Now  the  cause  of  this 
illness  lies  in  the  imagination,  something  which  borders  nearest  to  the 
nerves:  because  of  shame,  this  cause  never  comes  to  light,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  other  ideas  which  in  good  and  pious  girls,  ordinarily  con- 
cern religion,  reveal  themselves  so  much  the  stronger;  now  the  external 
senses  are  very  weak  because  the  nerves  are  weak,  while  on  the  other 
hand,  the  internal  senses  or  the  imagination  are  so  much  the  stronger, 
so  much  the  more  lively — what  is  the  result?  Dreams — and  indeed  of  a 
particular  kind.  . . .”  (There  follows  a corresponding  theory  of  hal- 
lucination and  religious  ecstasy.)  “You  see  that  the  feelings  of  love 
are  the  whole  cause  of  these  supposedly  heavenly  revelations.”  I,  290- 
292). 


VALUE  OF  UNCONSCIOUS  MATERIAL  453 


Justinus  Kerner  * and  of  Pastor  Blumhardt,  father  and  son,  in 
“Bad  Boll.”t 

Bismarck  writes:  “It  is  laudable  and  praiseworthy  to 
break  one’s  self  of  useless  or  injurious  outbreaks  of  feeling,  or 
to  give  them  another  more  acceptable  form,  but  I call  it  self- 
compulsion which  makes  one  ill  within,  when  one  stifles  his 
feelings  within  himself.” 

Before  Freud,  however,  attention  was  fixed  almost  wholly  on 
the  conscious  painful  material.  Only  gifted  students  of  the 
mind  like  Jung-Stilling,  penetrated  deeper.  The  Catholic 
confessional  is,  moreover,  one-sided  in  other  respects : It  fixes 
its  attention  on  the  guilt  instead  of  also  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  suffering.  It  makes  the  confessional  compulsory  and 
leads  to  punishment  by  the  Church;  thereby,  the  resistance 
against  the  disclosure  of  the  unconscious  material  is  power- 
fully strengthened.  It  is  satisfied  with  cursory  examination 
instead  of  carefully  seeking  the  circumstances  which  led  to  the 
origin  of  the  evil.  And  yet  it  does  untold  good  while  the 
Protestant  pastoral  instruction,  which  is  in  a far  more  favor- 
able position,  stands  hesitating  in  the  midst  of  wickedness. 
When  I have  had  unhappy  people  confide  in  me,  their  hearts 
overflowing  with  need,  I have  been  reproached  that  this  was 
a regression  to  Catholicism!  For  the  evangelical  pastor,  the 
aim  in  question  is  not  a cultistie  servitude  to  the  confessional 
as  a means  of  supernatural  grace,  but  an  ethical,  hence  really 
God-pleasing,  purification  purpose  and  hygienic  process  which 
will  gain  a great  amount  of  inhibited  forces  for  the  affairs  of 
God  and  therewith  for  the  affairs  of  men.  In  this  sense,  the 
teacher  must  also  be  religious  instructor  and  who  denies  that 
there  have  always  been  spiritually-minded  educators  ? $ 

The  follower  of  the  cathartic  method  and  the  psychoanalyst 
go  a step  farther  still  by  exposing  the  unconscious  to  the  light 

* H.  Silberer,  U.  d.  Behandlung  einer  Psychose  bei  Justinus  Kerner. 
Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  725  ff. 

t A.  Muthmann,  Psychiatrisch-theologische  Grenzfragen.  Zsehr.  f. 
Rel-psych.  I,  p.  136  ff. 

t In  this  direction,  psychoanalysis  is  only  a scientific  refinement  of  a 
method  practiced  intuitively. 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


454 

of  consciousness.  By  so  doing,  they  obtain  a series  of  new 
results  which  would  have  been  impossible  before. 

To-day,  however,  no  experienced  physician  and  educator 
doubts  that  merely  with  the  full  expression  in  words,  even 
though  accompanied  by  tears  and  affects,  the  healing  of  the 
trouble  caused  by  fixation  is  not  always  accomplished.  One 
symptom  very  deeply  analyzed  may  persist  unchanged,  while 
another  one  disappears  upon  superficial  exploration,  even 
without  analysis.  Thus,  there  must  be  still  other  forces  acting 
besides  the  associative  outpouring. 

(b)  The  abreaction  as  mental  outcropping  of  the  uncon- 
scious. 

The  analysis  penetrates  into  the  depths  and  discovers  the 
mole  which  throws  up  its  piles  of  earth  on  the  surface.  It 
shows  not  only  the  latent  thoughts  but  also  the  repressing 
thoughts,  the  original  instinctive  tendency  as  well  as  the  oppos- 
ing tendency  arising  from  within  or  without.  Now  we  know 
that  the  symptom  was  a means  for  concealing  the  unconscious 
thoughts  and  at  the  same  time  for  giving  them  some  measure 
of  expression.  Thus,  we  shall  expect  that  the  unmasked 
symptom  will  disappear  like  a developed  but  unfixed  photo- 
graphic negative  in  the  daylight.  An  associative  connection 
is  simultaneously  joined  to  the  mental  outcropping.  Thus 
with  the  becoming  conscious  and  acceptance  of  the  analytic 
interpretation,  the  manifestation  will  have  to  fade,  somewhat 
like  life  according  to  Uhland’s  saying: 

“He  who  sees  only  truth,  has  lived  to  the  end, 

Life  is  like  the  stage,  there  as  here, 

When  the  illusion  fades,  the  curtain  must  fall.” 

As  a fact,  we  see  a multitude  of  simple  and  gravely  severe 
signs  of  disease  disappear  as  soon  as  they  have  lost  their  incog- 
nito, as  a thief  disappears  from  the  field  of  the  camera  as 
quickly  as  possible  when  he  knows  that  he  is  recognized. 

Why  may  other  symptoms  remain  ? One  might  assume  that 
there  were  still  deeper  overdeterminants  than  those  discovered. 
This  view  is  irrefutable  for  one  can  never  pursue  a symptom 


EXTENT  OF  THE  ANALYSIS 


455 


to  the  absolute  beginnings  of  all  the  threads  in  its  enormously 
ramified  network.  Every  analysis  is  incomplete.  Thus  one 
might  conceive  of  an  inner  fixation  from  past  causes.  But  as 
often  as  we  carefully  investigate  a symptom,  we  also  find 
present  causes,  according  to  Freud,  the  foremost  are  the  striv- 
ing for  avoidance  of  discomfort  and  the  resistance  against  the 
analyst  who  is  unconsciously  identified  with  the  father,  accord- 
ing to  Adler,  a tendency  toward  assurance,  according  to  J ung, 
resistance  against  fulfillment  of  duty  connected  with  the  sacri- 
fice of  precious  infantilism,  according  to  all  three  men,  fear  of 
reality.  The  neurotic  individual  knows  what  he  has  in  his 
automatism  but  he  does  not  know  what  may  happen  from  the 
abandonment  of  it.  Fear  of  the  unknown  constantly  drives 
him  back  into  the  regression.  Hence  he  represses  with 
astounding  force  the  results  gained  by  analysis,  forgets  them, 
throws  suspicion  on  them  with  miserable  rationalizations  and 
incorporates  new  phantasies  in  the  symptom.  .He  acts  like 
an  invited  guest  who  brings  forward  a thousand  excuses  in 
order  to  remain  at  home.  Under  some  circumstances,  he 
creates  new  symptoms,  or,  and  this  is  the  most  fatal,  he  with- 
draws still  deeper  into  his  complexes.  The  latter  can  occur 
particularly  in  dementia  prsecox.  Where  the  isolation  from 
the  outer  world  increases,  the  educator  is  under  obligations  to 
call  the  psychiatrist  into  consultation  at  once. 

With  the  pure  analysis,  the  end  is  not  at  once  attained. 
Freud  remarks:  “It  is  a conception  long  ago  exploded  and 
dependent  on  most  superficial  appearances  that  the  patient 
suffers  from  a kind  of  ignorance  and  that  when  one  removes 
this  ignorance  by  communication  (concerning  the  causal  con- 
nections of  his  malady  with  his  suffering,  concerning  his  child- 
hood experiences,  etc.)  he  must  become  well.  This  ignorance 
is  not  in  itself  the  pathogenic  agency  but  the  foundation  of 
ignorance  in  inner  resistances  which  have  first  occasioned  the 
ignorance  and  still  maintain  it.  ” * Analysis  shows  where  the 
instinct  is  attached  and  thereby  renders  possible  its  release. 
It  resembles  the  sword  of  the  prince  which  cuts  through  the 

* Freud,  U.  “wilde”  Psa.  Zbl.  I,  p.  94. 


456 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


hedge  surrounding  the  castle  of  the  Sleeping  Beauty.  But 
the  liberating  force  is  still  lacking.  The  analysis  shows 
whither  the  attack  should  be  directed,  it  performs  scouting 
service  but  it  does  not  at  once  drive  out  the  enemy.  In  what 
direction  the  life-instinct  will  apply  itself,  that  is  the  great 
question,  upon  which  the  relief  of  the  inhibition  of  the  instinct 
depends.  That  this  fact  was  not  visible  at  first,  is  due  to  the 
circumstance  of  the  fortunate,  spontaneous  new  canalization 
of  the  life-instinct  in  the  cases  observed  at  that  period. 

Generally,  one  allows  the  patient  to  say  as  much  as  he  wishes. 
The  more  he  produces,  the  better.  And  if  he  speaks  ever  so 
meanly  of  his  father,  ever  so  vulgarly  of  God,  women  or  of 
any  subject,  one  quietly  allows  him  to  proceed.  The  dirty 
stuff  should  be  abreacted,  at  all  events,  it  should  be  told  to  the 
educator  as  much  as  possible.  The  physician  has  the  most 
disgusting  stomach-contents  emptied  out  by  vomiting.  Jesus 
says:  “Judge  not  that  ye  be  not  judged”  (Mat.  vii,  1). 
These  words,  the  analyst  should  keep  in  mind,  for  he  knows 
that  the  evil  impulses  of  the  unconscious  are  everywhere  pres- 
ent in  greater  or  less  degree  and  that  many  high  and  noble 
powers  make  their  appearance  when  these  can  be  utilized.* 

* He  who  believes  that  psychoanalysis  reveals  only  the  b£te  humaine 
in  men,  is  greatly  in  error.  Freud  has  shown  in  the  capacity  of  men 
for  sublimation,  how  far  man  transcends  the  lower  animals.  The 
dark  background  of  the  instinct  is  not  the  whole  man.  The  countless 
illnesses  from  moral  conflicts  (fundamentally,  all  neuroses  are  the  re- 
sults of  ethical  complications)  show  that  the  ethical  trend  belongs  to 
the  fundamental  tendencies  of  the  human  soul. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


COMPENSATION,  RECASTING  OP  THE  COMPLEX 
AND  TRANSFERENCE 

We  have  perceived  before  that  analysis  opens  the  cell  of  the 
prisoner.  That  he  leaves  the  cell,  analysis  does  not  vouch  for. 
Some  have  become  so  accustomed  to  prison  life  that  it  would  be 
too  unpleasant  to  venture  out  into  reality.  Their  will  to  health, 
the  indispensable  condition  to  the  overcoming  of  the  inhibition, 
is  too  small  to  exert  a counter-pressure  against  the  complex. 
They  like  to  remain  in  infantilism.  They  submit  to  automatism 
according  to  the  principle  of  the  least  expenditure  of  effort. 
They  disclose  the  fact  that  even  severe  neurotic  suffering  affords 
a certain,  even  though  unpleasant,  protective  measure  against 
moral  demands  and  mental  needs  and  they  would  escape  the 
hard  struggle  for  the  ethical  life  content.  What  the  educator 
has  to  initiate  in  such  pupils,  for  example,  lazy  or  rebellious 
boys  who  vent  their  hatred  of  their  fathers  upon  the  teacher,  the 
second  chapter  following  (19)  will  show.  For  the  time  being, 
we  have  to  deal  only  with  the  changes  which  the  analytic  prob- 
ing brings  about. 

1.  Compensation 

The  life-instinct,  frightened  by  external  or  internal  changes 
(not  merely  by  the  analysis),  seeks  a substitute  manifestation. 
If  the  repulsion  which  proceeds  from  the  humdrum  uniformity 
of  life  is  too  severe  in  denial  or  too  unpleasant,  if  further,  the 
attraction  by  pleasurable  relations,  partially  or  wholly  uncon- 
scious, is  too  powerful,  then  a neurotic  symptom  arises,  in 
which,  perhaps,  one  can  hardly  perceive  its  near  relationship  to 
the  antecedent  conditions.  We  have  already  shown  a number 
of  such  symptom-formations  appearing  during  the  analysis  or 
independently  of  it. 


457 


458 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


(Clucking,  itching  of  the  scalp,  skin  eruption  33f,  tearing 
the  skin  on  the  thumb,  eating  carrots,  playing  the  violin  215). 

A particularly  fine  example  may  be  added : The  youth  men- 
tioned on  pages  90  and  331  showed  in  the  first  two  analytic 
sessions  the  following  changing  forms  in  his  writing  cramp  oc- 
curing  immediately  during  the  analysis : 

1.  Strong  tension  of  the  hand,  fourth  and  fifth  fingers  anes- 
thetic. Motive:  The  hysterical  youth,  because  of  inner  con- 
flicts (negative  father-complex,  fetichism)  cannot  “fulfill”  his 
external  duties.  The  cramp  creates  an  excuse.  The  writing 
teacher,  a specialist  for  writer’s  cramp,  advised  him  to  correct 
the  faulty  position  of  the  hand  by  India  rubber  bands  which 
were  placed  about  the  last  two  fingers.  Thereupon  the  fingers 
went  to  sleep.  The  wished-for  emancipation  from  sexual  de- 
sire is  symbolically  expressed. 

2.  Only  the  thumb  suffers  from  tension.  Pretended  motive : 
“If  the  rubber  rings  are  removed,  I still  remain  inhibited.” 

3.  Automatic  drawing  back  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  fingers. 
Motive : “I  fall  back  into  the  old  fetters  and  am  retired. ’ ’ 

4.  Fatigue  of  both  hands : Motive : Tired  of  life. 

5.  Weak  tension,  pronounced  sweating  of  the  two  last  fingers. 
Motive : ‘ ‘ Though  I sweat  from  endeavor,  I do  not  escape  the 
enfeeblement.  I sweat  as  soon  as  I have  to  speak  with  a lady,  I 
accomplish  nothing.” 

6.  Feeling  that  the  bones  of  the  hand,  particularly  those  of 
the  middle  finger,  are  broken.  Latent  thought:  “If  I am  a 
broken  man,  nothing  can  be  expected  of  me.” 

7.  The  whole  arm  is  drawn  backwards,  hand  normal. 
Motive:  “What  help  is  it  to  become  free  in  one  place  if  the 
whole  person  is  inhibited  ? ’ ’ 

8.  Tension  in  only  one  joint  of  hand  which  is  pressed  towards 
the  right.  Latent  cramp  thought : “You  were  shoved  aside. ’ ’ 

9.  The  same  tension  with  sweating.  Association:  “The 
position  of  my  hand  is  faulty,  that  throws  me  into  anxiety.” 

10.  Contracture  of  the  hand  toward  the  left.  Motive:  “If 
I am  not  repudiated  on  one  side,  I am  on  the  other.” 

11.  Tension  in  the  middle  of  the  hand  up  to  the  elbow. 


LAW  OF  COMPENSATION 


459 


Motive:  “The  inner  inhibition  remains,  even  though  I am 
shoved  neither  toward  left  nor  right.” 

The  subsequent  test  of  the  writing  turned  out  exactly  the 
same.  One  sees  that  the  analysis  of  symptoms,  in  severe  cases, 
accomplishes  nothing  so  far  as  the  complex  is  not  hit  in  the 
center  and  the  resistance  lowered.  We  find  plainly  the  phe- 
nomenon of  compensation  and  recall  that  we  also  found  above 
(90)  spontaneous  change  of  symptoms  in  writer’s  cramp  re- 
sulting from  changes  in  the  unconscious  wishes  at  the  moment 
of  symptom-formation. 

The  forms  of  the  compensations  are  very  manifold.  Each 
manifestation  can  be  considered  as  such.  Ferenczi  has  col- 
lected a pretty  group  of  rapidly  interchanging  substitute  forma- 
tions occasioned  by  analysis.* 

Many  of  these  formations  are  new  additions  of  symptoms 
previously  present,  many,  quite  new.  Many  have  come  by 
paths  of  inner  association,  many  by  those  of  outer  ones. 

The  law  of  compensation  applies  also  to  normal  individuals. 
A drinker  is  to  be  considered  as  cured  only  when  he  has  found 
a substitute  of  similar  or  superior  value,  for  example,  religion, 
friendship,  music,  authority,  family  life.  Also  for  the  onanist, 
a superior  value  must  be  made  accessible.  Without  such  an 
“inducement”  (Freud),  many  a person  does  not  decide  on 
separating  the  life-instinct  from  the  inferior  function. 

Highly  valuable  substitute  formations,  especially  sublima- 
tions, to  which  a patient  directs  his  life-instinct,  should,  there- 
fore, not  be  disturbed.  I made  the  acquaintance  of  a patient 
to  whom  the  analyst  had  forbidden  charitable  work  while  she 
longed  for  it.  In  its  place  she  was  to  live  fully  in  the  marriage 
relation.  The  effect  was  that  her  love  turned  passionately  to 
the  physician  and  regardless  of  how  forcibly  he  explained  to 
her  the  unreality  and  origin  of  this  inclination,  she  clung  to 
him;  with  this  love  and  gratitude,  of  course,  a truly  raging 
wrath  went  hand  in  hand.  Hence  she  felt  immeasurably  un- 
happy and  incapable  of  living.  She  called  psychoanalysis  a 

* Ferenczi,  U.  passae&re  Symptombildungen  wahrend  der  Analyse. 
Zbl.  II,  pp.  588-596. 


460 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


pleasant  but  base  method  since  it  brought  the  patients  into 
slavish,  immoral  dependence  upon  the  physician  and  showed 
the  person  the  vileness  of  his  own  nature  only  to  consign  him 
to  his  disgrace.  Two  hours  sufficed  to  dissolve  the  fixation  on 
the  physician  who  had  treated  the  very  sick  patient  in  vain  four 
years  according  to  Dubois  and  three  years  according  to  Freud, 
and  to  substitute  a sublimated  relation  to  me  as  well  as  to 
give  her  self-esteem  by  participation  in  philosophical  works 
and  religious  reassurance.  Further,  an  hysterical  symptom  of 
twenty-two  years’  duration  disappeared.  One  year  later,  she 
confirmed  her  continuing  health,  happiness  and  proper  attitude 
toward  God,  family,  fellowmen  and  life  in  general.  For 
psychoanalysis,  she  had  only  words  of  astonished  admiration. 
She  was  entirely  independent  of  me.  She  promised  to  inform 
me  immediately  of  the  slightest  disturbance  but  never  let  me 
hear  anything  from  her  again. 

The  analyst  should  allow  the  compensations  to  be  retained  so 
far  as  they  do  not  bring  with  them  new  dangers  and  inexpedi- 
encies and  not  try  to  see  if  he  can  guide  the  life-instinct  into 
paths  which  suit  himself  personally  best. 

2.  Molding  and  Remolding  op  the  Complex 

It  has  been  shown  in  various  places  how  the  unconscious  tries 
to  adapt  all  possible  experiences  and  ideas  to  its  complex.  In 
dreams,  waking  phantasies,  morbid  symptoms,  reactions,  cryp- 
toialia  and  cryptography,  etc.,  one  finds  an  enormous  amount  of 
such  contents  which  are  estimated  in  the  sense  of  gratification 
of  the  complex  or  of  the  wish.  In  my  “Analytic  Investigations 
of  the  Psychology  of  Hate  and  Reconciliation,  ’ ’ * I formulated 
the  following  law : 

The  repressed  hate  of  certain  individuals  forms  phantasies 
out  of  suitable  contents  of  experience,  either  actual  or  imagi- 
nary, according  to  the  laws  of  the  dream-work,  by  which  pro- 
cedure, it  creates  for  itself  imaginary  gratification.  This 
gratification  of  complex  comes  about  through  the  mechanism  of 
a disguised  wish,  directed  toward  the  injury  of  the  hated  per- 

* Deuticke,  Leipzig  and  Vienna,  p.  25. 


MECHANISM  OF  COMPLEX-MOLDING  461 


son,  being  represented  in  the  content  of  the  waking-dream  as 
realized.  The  sexual  component  of  the  hate  appears  in  the 
form  of  sadism  and  masochism.  The  “pleasure  of  hate”  re- 
veals its  secret  to  the  analysis. 

To-day,  I am  ready  to  amplify  that  law  and  express  the  law 
of  the  molding  by  the  complex  in  the  following  form : 

Every  complex  forms  phantasies  from  suitable  contents  ex- 
perienced or  merely  imagined,  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
dream-work,  by  which  mechanism  it  aims  to  create  for  itself 
imaginary  gratification  without  understanding  the  true  mean- 
ing of  the  phantasies. 

The  mechanism  of  the  complex-molding,  we  describe  as  fol- 
lows: These  phantasies,  sometimes  wholly,  sometimes  par- 
tially, unconscious,  are  occasioned  by  an  inhibition  in  the  pres- 
ent and  utilize  the  regression  into  the  recent  and  ever  more  re- 
mote past  (infantilism)  in  order  to  gain  autistically  favorable 
perspectives  for  the  future. 

We  add  the  new  formula  as  generalization  of  the  assertion 
previously  expressed : * “ During  longer  duration  or  sharpen- 
ing the  complex  ever  makes  use  of  new  contents  in  order  to  deck 
out  the  previous  phantasies  or  to  create  entirely  new  ones. 
These  new  formations  express  the  variations  of  the  complex 
with  the  finest  nuances.  ” 

Good  examples  were  afforded  me  by  the  artist  whose  crypto- 
graphic series  I have  described  elsewhere  t ; further  examples 
by  the  religious  speaker  with  tongues  mentioned  in  my  mono- 
graph. t 

We  recall  also  that  the  complex-molding,  as  autistic  per^ 
formance,  represents  (459)  a compensation  for  actual  gratifica- 
tion and  thus  far  signifies  a compensation. 

Particularly  noteworthy  is  the  fact  that  with  the  change  of 
he  complex,  not  simply  new  phantasies  are  assumed  but  that 

* Same,  p.  40. 

f Kryptolalie,  KrvptogTaphie  u.  unbew.  Vexierbild  b.  Normalen. 
Jahrb.  V.  (1913),  p.’  130  ff. 

+ Die  payehologische  Entratselung  d.  rel.  Glossolalie  u.  autom.  Krypto- 
graphie,  pp.  19-92. 


462 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


a regression  to  the  earlier  phantastie  manifestations  occurs,  in 
order  to  extend  the  change  to  them.  This  happens  before  any 
analysis  but  comes  to  view  in  it.  A new  love  relation,  for  ex- 
ample, is  not  conceivable  without  reversion  in  the  dreams  and 
phantasies  to  the  earlier  analogous  situations  and  the  charac- 
teristics of  earlier  objects  being  superimposed  upon  the  later 
ones. 

In  my  analyses  of  hate  and  reconciliation  phantasies,  I saw 
for  the  first  time  in  what  astonishingly  clever  manner  the 
elaboration  of  the  earlier  pictures  is  executed  when  the  complex 
changes  suddenly  to  the  opposite : All  phantasies  are,  as  one 
might  say,  provided  with  a negative  sign  and  rendered  innocu- 
ous. Therewith  the  earlier  scene  is  either  retained,  accom- 
panied by  tears,  or  the  criticism  of  it  covered  by  a black  wall : 
Previously,  the  complex-ruled  poet  saw  his  brother  as  dying 
diver  (344),  now  he  comes  by  the  stimulus  word,  “Erde” 
(earth)  to  the  secret,  water,  etc.  Associated  with  water,  he  sees 
the  dying  diver  hidden  by  a black  wall.*  It  also  happens  that 
the  picture  seems  dissolving,  transient.  Many  times,  the  tragic 
figure  is  replaced  by  one  similar  to  it  but  not  tragic,  perhaps 
even  comic.  Or  the  scene  may  be  split  into  several  harmless 
ones,  or  inversely,  several  horrible  phantasies  may  be  welded 
into  one  harmless  one.  Further,  sublimation  with  condensation 
and  disjection  may  occur. 

A further  interesting  example  is  the  sudden  change  of  re- 
ligious ideas  in  the  case  of  conversion;  up  to  a certain  degree, 
this  must  be  considered  as  manifestation.  Considered  purely 
psychologically,  conversion  is  a reaction-formation.  Hence  it 
does  not  surprise  us  that  after  the  conversion,  the  religious  ideas 
suddenly  change  into  the  opposite,  thus,  are  not  entirely  new 
where  they  are  formed  independently  and  are  not  mere  prod- 
ucts of  suggestion.  Rather,  the  one-time  religious  contents  per- 
sist, but  in  the  sublimation  they  are  changed  into  their  oppo- 
sites. The  Apostle  Paul  shows  this  very  beautifully.  As  a 
Jew,  he  suffers  from  an  anxiety-neurosis  because  he  cannot  ful- 
fill the  ‘ ‘ law  of  the  flesh  ’ ’ or  the  ‘ ‘ law  in  the  members  ’ ’ accord- 

* Some,  p.  27,  compare  also  p.  337,  399. 


RELIGIOUS  CONVERSION 


463 


ing  to  the  law  of  the  spirit  (Romans  vii).  So  much  the  more 
fanatically  does  he  hold  to  the  “Law  of  Moses”  (obsessional 
neurotic  displacement) . He  hates  Christ  because  the  latter  re- 
places the  law  by  the  free  demands  of  love  and  therewith  dis- 
turbs the  asylum  of  the  complex-need,  the  ceremonialism  and 
orthodoxy;  Christ  must  be  the  accursed  one  because  the  law 
condemns  everyone  who  hangs  on  the  tree  or  changes  a letter  of 
the  law.  After  his  conversion,  all  these  ideas  return,  recast: 
instead  of  the  flesh,  spiritual  dominion  and  heavenly  body, 
instead  of  the  law,  freedom,  instead  of  Christ  the  Wicked  One, 
Christ  the  Holy  One,  the  Spirit,  the  Son  of  God,  who  had  to  be 
bora  of  the  flesh  and  was  saved  in  the  resurrection  from  the 
flesh — this  too  betrays  the  need  for  express  revocation — in- 
stead of  the  ignominious  elevation  on  the  cross,  elevation  to 
divine  majesty  in  pre-  and  post-existence,*  instead  of  the 
cross,  a pillar  of  shame,  the  cross,  a power  of  God  ( I Cor.  i, 
18).  The  letter  killeth,  the  spirit  (previously  powerless) 
maketh  alive  (II  Cor.  iii,  6). 

It  seems  to  me  that  we  can  sum  up  this  very  important  law  of 
complex-remolding  in  the  following  formula : 

When  a complex  changes  its  direction  or  loses  in  intensity, 
the  earlier  complex-phantasies  are  in  great  part,  perhaps  alto- 
gether, not  simply  replaced  by  completely  new  ones,  but  first 
of  all  subjected  to  an  elaboration  which  manifests  the  new 
complex-attitude. 

Proceeding  from  the  standpoint  of  ideas,  we  can  formulate 
the  proposition:  Every  new  psychic  content  arranges  itself 
with  earlier  analogous  contents  while  it  is  conditioned  by  them 
in  its  conception  and  elaboration,  or  recasting  them,  seeks  to 
bring  them  into  harmony  with  itself. 

This  law,  in  which  the  organic  unity  of  the  mental  life  is 
expressed,  I call  the  psychological  law  of  reference. 

Before  a thought  or  endeavor  has  executed  this  active  or  pas- 
sive arrangement,  it  does  not  belong  to  the  fixed  mental  pos- 
sessions. 

* H.  Holtzmann,  Lehrb.  d.  neutest.  Theologie,  Freiburg  and  Leipzig, 
1897,  Vol.  II,  p.  81  ff. 


464 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


The  significance  of  punishment,  of  expiation,  indeed  of  the 
analysis,  consists  chiefly  in  the  circumstance  that  the  contents 
of  ideas  and  volitions  to  be  denied  are  made  clearly  accessible, 
and  thereby  accessible  to  the  conscious  remodeling.  From  the 
necessity  for  relative  confrontation  is  explained  also  the  regres- 
sion so  far  as  it  is  not  absolute.  The  regression  is  only  a stage 
in  the  process  of  reference.  From  the  same  necessity,  to 
establish  the  unity  of  the  mental  life,  is  explained  also  the 
important  phenomenon  which  we  have  now  to  discuss,  the 
transference. 


3.  The  Transference 
(a)  its  forms  of  phenomena 

A form  of  compensation  proceeding  from  regression  and 
indeed  the  most  important  for  the  progress  and  outcome  of  the 
analysis  and  the  hardest  to  deal  with,  is  the  transference. 
Freud  describes  it  in  these  words:  “Transferences  are  new 
editions,  copies  of  the  impulses  and  phantasies  which  should  be 
awakened  and  made  conscious  during  the  progress  of  the  analy- 
sis, with  a replacement,  characteristic  for  the  class,  of  an  earlier 
person  by  the  person  of  the  physician.  To  put  it  differently,  a 
whole  series  of  earlier  psychic  experiences  is  revived,  not  as 
past  but  as  actually  pertaining  to  the  person  of  the  physi- 
cian.” * The  transference  occurs  unconsciously  in  every  close 
pastoral  relation.  Psychoanalysis  merely  discloses  that  which 
happens  everywhere,  but  it  must  also  awaken  the  hostile  im- 
pulses and  therewith  feelings  of  denial  which  are  projected 
upon  the  analyst  t and  easily  change  the  affection  (positive 
transference)  into  its  opposite  (negative  transference). 

In  the  transference,  also,  a manifest  and  a latent  contribution 
is  to  be  differentiated.  It  may  happen  that  in  consciousness 
there  may  be  the  strongest  love  for  the  analyst,  while  in  the  un- 
conscious, grim  hostility  against  him  may  hold  sway.  The 
transference  is  to  be  recognized  most  clearly  when  the  charac- 

* Freud,  Bruchsttich.  Kl.  Schr.  II,  p.  104. 

t Same,  p.  105.  Gradiva,  p.  78. 


THE  TRANSFERENCE 


465 


teristics  of  other  persons  are  openly  attributed  to  the  analyst, 
for  example,  the  eyes  of  the  seducer  (246),  or  when  he  is  even 
identified  with  another  person,  for  example,  with  the  physician 
who  had  performed  an  operation  in  the  first  year  of  life  (123, 
265) . I will  add  a rather  exaggerated  example : 

It  concerned  a youth  of  seventeen  years,  who,  on  account  of 
severe  melancholia,  turning  against  all  people,  temporary  ex- 
citements and  all  kinds  of  physical  defects  associated  with  these 
things,  had  come  to  me  for  special  education.  I limited  myself 
to  a very  superficial  analysis  which  revealed  to  him  the  causes 
of  his  condition  and  the  necessity  of  a suitable  utilization  of 
instinct  in  the  direction  of  religion,  love  for  neighbors  and  ful- 
filment of  duty.  After  the  fourth  session,  he  explained  to  me 
triumphantly  that  he  felt  entirely  well  and  could  henceforth 
help  himself.  Only  later  did  I find  out  that  he  had  at  that  time 
made  the  acquaintance  of  a fine  girl  and  been  kindly  received 
in  her  family. 

A year  later,  the  depression  returned,  which  did  not  surprise 
me  in  view  of  the  previous  superficial  treatment.  It  proved 
that  he  had  been  thrown  out  of  poise  by  a conflict  with  his  be- 
loved. When  I sought  information  concerning  further  symp- 
toms and  asked  especially  after  hallucinations,  I discovered  to 
my  surprise  that  the  patient  had  formerly  for  a space  of  three 
to  four  years,  viewed  himself  in  the  mirror  as  dead,  in  the  figure 
of  a skeleton  dressed  in  a white  cloth.  Previously,  he  had  a 
strikingly  strong  fondness  for  a death ’s  head.  After  the  first 
conversations  with  me,  the  phenomena  ceased.  I remarked  to 
my  patient  that  we  would  speak  next  of  his  youth — a violence 
which  was  at  once  avenged,  for  the  unconscious  does  not  allow 
its  tasks  to  be  imposed  by  command. 

My  visitor  told  of  his  old  hate  for  his  parents,  brothers  and 
sisters.  The  father  had  handed  him  over  to  his  grandfather 
for  education  up  to  his  eleventh  year  and  yet  shamelessly  drew 
for  this,  a kind  of  wage  money,  indeed  from  time  to  time,  he  had 
increased  the  amount  demanded.  The  grandmother  had  died 
in  the  insane  asylum. 

Suddenly  the  patient’s  facial  expression  changed,  his  hair 


466 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


stood  up,  terror  spoke  from  his  distorted  features.  He  cried 
out  anxiously : ‘ ‘ Why  do  you  look  at  me  so  sharply  ? ” [lam 
not  doing  so  at  all.]  “Yes ! You  are  the  skeleton,  you  wear  a 
white  cloth  about  your  face  and  body,  you  are  Death ! I can- 
not look  at  you  longer!’’  [Calm  yourself;  we  will  at  once 
analyze  this  pretty  hallucination.  Imagine  me  as  Death!] 
“My  friend.  The  same  thing  happened  to  me  with  her  re- 
cently. When  I had  a quarrel  with  her  and  she  looked  at  me 
painfully  disappointed,  she  seemed  to  me  Death.  I halluci- 
nated the  same  thing  when  I awoke  at  night.  I had  to  arise  and 
leave  the  house.  The  friend  is  the  only  person  I love.  Even 
for  you,  I do  not  feel  affection  but  esteem.  With  you,  I never 
felt  free  but  rather  when  I went  away  from  you. ’ ’ [The  facial 
expression  of  the  girl.  ] ‘ ‘ Reproachful,  wish  for  reconciliation. 

I can  never  forgive  her,  however,  for  showing  favor  to  another.  ’ ’ 
[Your  love  is  barred  again,  hence  depression  and  excitement. 
You  have  previously  wished  for  death,  hence  the  hallucinations 
at  that  time.  Your  friend  helped  your  life-desires  to  an  outlet 
in  reality.  Since  you  thought  to  lose  the  loved  one,  you  read 
death  in  her  eyes  and  made  the  girl  your  murderer.  Now  con- 
sider the  connection  of  your  vision  of  to-day : You  were  telling 
first  of  the  avaricious  behavior  of  your  father  and  of  the  death 
of  your  insane  grandmother.  Then  you  exclaimed : ‘ ‘ Why  do 
you  look  so  sharply  ? Now?]  “I  explain  it  like  this : I was 
raving  at  father.  Then  you  occurred  to  me.  I considered  you 
as  my  father.  To  that,  I come  only  this  minute,  I had  thought 
the  explanation  in  other  regions.  Now  I can  look  at  you  quite 
well.  Just  as  I found  the  solution,  the  white  cloth  went  away, 
then  the  figure ; the  eyes  of  Death  remained  a moment  longer 
but  faded  when  I looked  at  you  a second  time.” 

We  discussed  at  great  length  the  position  of  the  parents,  their 
financial  need,  their  worthy  traits.  After  long  inner  combat, 
the  youth  begged  me  to  speak  with  them  and  arrange  a recon- 
ciliation. I would  have  preferred  that  the  son  had  spoken  his 
mind  directly  against  them  hut  could  not  expect  too  much.  The 
reconciliation  with  the  parents  and  girl  friend  came  to  pass  but 
I lost  my  patient  who  was  again  feeling  very  happy. 


ANALYSIS  OF  HALLUCINATION 


467 


Only  ten  weeks  later,  I received  a second  visit.  I heard  de- 
tails of  his  pleasure  in  considering  skulls  and  the  wish  to  possess 
such  an  one.*  The  death-hallucination  was  not  determined  by 
Bethel's  picture  “Der  Tod  als  Freund”  (Death  as  Friend)  foi 
it  occurred  before  the  youth  knew  of  the  picture,  the  cloth  also 
was  differently  arranged.  Asked  to  associate  to  the  latter,  the 
youth  mentioned  first  his  beloved,  whose  facial  expression  never- 
theless was  different.  The  features  reminded  him  of  a prosti- 
tute whom  he  once  saw  on  the  street,  and  then  of  another. 
Only  after  I had  him  think  of  the  cloth  of  the  dead,  did  he  ex- 
claim: “Now  I have  it!”  A girl  relative  had  aroused  his 
passions  some  four  years  before  and  claimed  his  consideration. 
This  scene  left  behind  a strong  feeling  of  guilt.  Scarcely  had 
the  cousin  who  wore  just  such  a white  cloth  as  the  death’s  head 
in  the  dream,  departed,  than  the  hallucinations  broke  out  for 
the  first  time. 

Now,  however,  the  analysis  led  to  a surprising  intermezzo. 
The  youth  found  to  his  own  astonishment,  that  he  now  phan- 
tasied  me  alternately  in  two  different  figures : at  one  time  with  a 
cloth,  at  another,  without  such.  After  some  investigation,  we 
found  that  I received  the  cloth  as  often  as  bending  forward  I 
sat  before  the  evening  sky  but  was  free  from  the  cloth  when  the 
white  window  post  stood  behind  me.  The  face  was  imagined  as 
a skull  covered  over  with  skin,  with  bulging  eyes.  The  attitude 
in  this  hallucination  produced  the  association  that  the  father 
had  looked  sharply  at  his  son  after  masturbation  when  both  sat 
at  table,  whereupon  the  guilty  one  thought  the  father  saw  the 
practice  in  him ; then  every  time,  out  of  hate  and  expiation,  he 
changed  hallucinatorily  the  feared  one  into  the  death’s  head. 
Before  the  session,  the  boy  had  fallen  back  into  his  error  and 
identified  me  with  the  father.  The  latter,  too,  he  sees  as  death ’s 
head  with  and  without  a cloth,  the  latter  at  table,  the  former 
upon  going  to  bed. 

The  white  background  reminded  him  of  the  second  sexual 
trauma  which  followed  soon  after  the  first : Our  patient  sur- 

* Compare  Gottfreid  Keller,  Der  grime  Heinrich,  III,  p.  104  ff:  Der 
Schadel  des  Albertus  Zwiehan. 


468 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


prised  his  eight  year-old  sister  as  she  was  sitting  on  the  sheet 
changing  her  shirt.  The  cousin  on  the  other  hand,  who  was 
accustomed  to  wear  the  cloth  about  her  head,  lay  at  that  time  on 
a dark  sofa  in  the  twilight. 

The  hallucinations  had  often  been  called  up  voluntarily  by 
wishing  and  had  regularly  appeared.  The  wish  appeared,  how- 
ever, only  after  onanism. 

Here,  we  plainly  see  the  hallucination  as  identification  of  the 
analyst  with  the  patient’s  father,  wherewith  the  death’s  head 
served  not  only  as  expression  of  death  but  also  as  representation 
of  the  wish  for  highest  life  activity,  for  cohabitation,  in  relation 
to  two  objects  who  had  excited  him.  The  intermingling  of 
the  objects  comes  plainly  to  view  here.* 

The  following  example  may  show  a positive  transference : A 
sixteen  year-old  girl  dreamed : I held  out  to  the  piano  teacher 
a paper,  notes  or  something  which  he  needed,  as  if  to  say  to  him, 
‘ ‘ There  you  have  it ! ” When  he  would  take  it,  I always  drew 
it  away  from  him  again.” 

[To  the  whole  dream  ?]  “We  have  such  papers  in  the  insti- 
tute, programs,  note  paper.  My  brother  says  I am  a piece  of 
music : fine  and  long.  He  always  vexes  me.  Therefore  he  can- 
not enter  my  room  any  more.  ’ ’ 

[The  paper.]  “Love  letter.  My  teacher  is  officious  and 
jealous  of  my  friend.”  [The  teacher.]  “ I formerly  had  one 
who  had  a little  boy.  Something  concerning  his  marriage 
occurs  to  me.  He  idolized  my  mother  as  my  father  did  for- 
merly. My  friend  must  also  rave  over  me.  Now  my  right  eye 
smarts.” 

The  piano  teacher  is  myself  since  I too  am  admired  by  the 
girl  like  that  teacher  because  of  my  performances  on  the  piano, 
I have  a son  and  agree  with  the  dream  figure  in  the  detail  given 
in  regard  to  the  marriage.  I once  called  the  mother  of  the 
refractory,  hysterical  girl  a handsome  woman  when  the  daugh- 
ter would  unjustly  refer  to  her  as  old  woman.  The  comparison 
with  the  father  also  stands  out  plainly. 

* We  saw  a fine  example  of  negative  transference  in  the  phantasies  of 
God,  p.  247. 


PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  TRANSFERENCE  469 


The  paper  which  contains  a love-letter  or  piece  of  music 
refers  to  the  girl  (“long  and  beautiful")  and  her  love.  She 
would  like  to  provoke  a counter-transference  on  my  part  and 
play  with  me.  She  will,  however,  also  withhold  her  secret  from 
me  which  really  came  to  view  at  the  next  session.  The  friend 
must  appear  in  the  role  of  father  and  analyst  in  order  to  be 
fully  accepted.  The  pains  in  the  eye  refer  to  defloration-  and 
birth-wishes.  The  refusal  of  the  transference  resulted  in  the 
girl’s  attempting,  when  she  thought  herself  unobserved  for  a 
moment,  to  push  away  my  chair  and  she  frankly  admitted  that 
she  would  be  glad  if  I were  boiled  or  ground  up  in  a mill. 
Further  elucidation  eliminated  the  hate,  whereupon  the  analysis 
advanced  farther.  The  following  dream  brought  the  solution 
of  a riddle  which  had  been  sought  for  weeks. 

The  analyst  is  accustomed  to  being  now  passionately  loved, 
admired,  deified,  now  hung,  impaled  or  broken  on  the  wheel 
with  sadistic  murder-lust.  Ferenczi  justly  says : “A  slightly 
less  friendly  remark,  pointing  to  a duty  or  urging  punctuality, 
or  a little  sharper  tone  on  the  part  of  the  analyst,  suffice  to 
bring  down  upon  him  all  the  patient ’s  unconscious  hate  directed 
against  moralizing  persons  in  authority  (parents,  husband)."  * 

Freud  found  that  always  when  the  free  associations  of  a 
patient,  not  merely  the  reports  of  such,  stop,  the  patient’s  at- 
tention is  busy  with  the  analyst.  The  stopping  may  be  imme- 
diately eliminated  if  one  pays  attention  to  this  state  of 
affairs.f 

(b)  the  psychological  process  op  the  transference 

^The  instinct  ferreted  out  by  analysis  seeks,  as  we  have 
heard,  new  manifestations.  As  compensation,  the  analyst 
comes  into  consideration  as  the  nearest  person.  Every  person 
bears  within  himself  a portion  of  his  life-force  not  realized, 
retarded  in  its  development,  which  could  find  expression  only 
autistically  or  remained  in  the  unconscious.  “He  whose  love- 
need  is  not  completely  gratified  by  reality,  must  attach  himself 

* Ferenczi,  Introjektion  u.  Ubertragung.  Jahrb.  I,  p.  426. 

f Freud,  Z.  Ubertragung.  Zbl.  II,  p.  168. 


470 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


to  every  newly  appearing  person  with  expectant  libidinous 
ideas  and  it  is  entirely  probable  that  both  portions  of  his  libido, 
the  conscious  part  as  well  as  the  unconscious,  have  a share  in 
this  attitude.”  (Freud.)* 

It  happens  that  the  analyst,  by  virtue  of  his  authority  and 
his  assisting  attitude,  appears  in  the  place  of  the  father  and  in 
the  regression  occasioned  by  the  analysis  furnishes  an  obvious 
carrier  of  emotion.  He  forms  a composite  figure  with  the 
father  or  if  he  bears  mother  characteristics  ( for  example,  ten- 
derness or  thoughtfulness)  he  is  joined  to  the  mother,  is  identi- 
fied with  the  one  or  the  other.  The  patient  hopes  also  to  be 
able  to  gain  earlier  autistic  favors  for  the  future.  It  may  have 
been  noticed  already  that  the  analyst  should  not  play  the  father 
role  with  arrogant  authority  but  treat  the  patient  throughout 
as  an  equal,  hereby  affording  the  latter  the  consciousness  of 
his  self-determination,  self-responsibility  and  value,  unim- 
paired. 

The  emotions  applied  to  the  analyst  (man  or  woman)  are 
therefore  not  genuine.  They  belong  to  a totally  different  per- 
son. He  who  is  no  vain  or  love-hungry  person  will  accordingly 
very  soon  become  indifferent  to  the  positive  or  negative  trans- 
ference as  far  as  his  own  person  is  concerned.  The  love- 
hungry,  vain  beginner  is  violently  affected  when  he  sees  himself 
ardently  loved  as  he  is  vexed  over  the  hate.  In  more  sensible 
manner,  one  has  to  say,  however,  that  one  is  not  intended  at  all 
but  the  image  which  is  projected  into  us. 

(c)  THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  TRANSFERENCE 

As  little  as  we  make  for  ourselves  from  the  positive  and  nega- 
tive transference  an  erotic  application  in  so  far  as  it  has  us  as 
analyst  for  object,  we  esteem  it  of  great  importance  for  health 
and  education.  It  belongs  to  the  most  important  steps  in  the 
way  of  the  psychoanalytic  treatment. 

Freud  formulates  the  reason  in  the  following  way:  “In  a 
residuum  of  love,  the  process  of  healing  is  carried  out,  if  we 

* Freud,  Zur  Dynamik  d.  tibertragung.  ZbI.  II,  o.  168. 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  TRANSFERENCE  471 


summarize  all  the  manifold  components  * of  the  sexual  instinct 
as  love,  and  this  residuum  is  indispensable,  for  the  symptoms 
for  which  the  treatment  was  undertaken,  are  nothing  else 
than  precipitates  of  earlier  repression-  or  return-struggles  and 
can  only  be  dissolved  and  swept  away  by  a new  flood  of  the 
same  passion.  Every  psychoanalytic  treatment  is  an  attempt 
to  set  free  repressed  love  which  had  found  a miserable  compro- 
mise outlet  in  a symptom.”!  We  remember  to  have  heard 
that  the  life-desire,  driven  from  the  light  of  consciousness,  can 
withdraw  still  deeper  into  infantilism  and  therewith  be  still 
more  surely  excluded  from  real  elaboration.  The  analyst  has 
now  the  opportunity  of  directing  the  life-desire,  in  statu  nas- 
cendi,  upon  himself,  thereby  upon  a bit  of  reality,  and  thus  of 
building  the  bridge  for  a return  to  reality.  He  is  thus  at  the 
decisive  moment,  since  it  is  a question  of  still  deeper  introver- 
sion or  return  to  real  life,  the  knight  who  prevents  the  Sleep- 
ing Beauty  from  hiding  in  still  more  hidden  castle  chambers 
and  who  guides  her  back  to  the  world. 

One  can  therefore  confidently  say : That  which  is  the  most 
decisive  factor  in  the  analysis  is  not  merely  the  thoroughness 
and  correctness  of  the  mental  illumination  of  the  unconscious, 
but  just  as  much,  indeed  still  more,  the  person  of  the  analyst 
who  temporarily  accepts  the  life-desire  of  the  patient  in  order 
to  transmit  it  to  reality,  to  healthy  moral  life  activities.  Where 
the  personality,  freed  from  complex-illusion,  can  win  in  high 
degree,  it  will  tear  the  fixed  life-desire  free  from  its  stagnation 
in  weak  fixation,  even  after  slight  analysis,  indeed  without 
analysis  (by  suggestion).  Where  the  personality  is  weak,  the 
patient  can  often  by  his  own  power  take  the  good  way.  In 
severe  cases,  however,  both  the  analysis  for  setting  free  the  life- 
desire  and  the  transference  for  the  purpose  of  enticing  and 
provisional  adaptation  of  the  life-desire  to  reality  are  necessary. 
Analysis  without  transference  easily  leads  to  introversion, 
transference  without  analysis  to  counter-reaction,  to  false, 
slavish  sublimation,  to  deification  of  authority,  mental  bondage 

* We  would  say : “active  tendencies.” 

f Freud,  Gradiva,  p.  78. 


m 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


and  narrowing  of  the  horizon,  to  incapacity  for  saving  the  soul 
in  the  highest  meaning  of  the  word  and  becoming  a strong,  free 
personality. 

(d)  the  treatment  op  the  transference 

The  correct  treatment  of  the  transference  must  also  be  tested 
out  in  tedious  investigations  and  complete  agreement  has  not 
yet  been  attained. 

We  proceed  from  the  consideration  which  we  laid  down  re- 
garding the  transference:  To  guard  the  neurotic  against  re- 
gression and  introversion  and  to  further  the  actual  utilization 
of  his  life-instinct.  From  these  points,  the  following  formula- 
tions result : 

1.  The  negative  transference  is  to  he  annulled 

This  is  accomplished  first  of  all  by  careful  analysis.  Warm 
affection  often  rules  in  consciousness  while  in  the  unconscious, 
bitter  hostility  holds  sway.  Hence  all  hostile  impulses  are  to 
be  discovered  and  stripped  of  their  power.  If  they  gain  the 
upper  hand,  the  resistance  gains  the  victory.  Perhaps  the 
patient  may  break  off  the  treatment  under  threadbare  rational- 
izations or  he  may  give  himself  up  to  regression.  Under  certain 
circumstances,  he  seeks  to  treat  the  educator  badly  if  the  latter 
is  so  foolish  as  to  allow  it.  Hence  it  is  the  analyst’s  duty  to 
make  clear  to  the  refractory  subject,  without  the  slightest  show 
of  affect,  that  he  is  only  continuing  the  methods  practised 
against  the  father  or  is  erroneously  ascribing  to  the  analyst  un- 
kindnesses suspected  of  someone  else. 

The  relation  to  the  pupil  should  be  cordial,  guided  by  genuine 
human  love.  Still,  one  never  attempts  to  compel  love  in  order 
to  combat  hate — possibly  the  father  may  have  already  at- 
tempted that  sort  of  thing  so  that  the  resistance,  the  mistrust, 
is  only  strengthened.  One  should  never  give  more  praise  in 
momentary  exaltation  than  one  could  give  upon  more  calm 
consideration.  One  never  allows  one’s  self  to  be  overawed  or 
put  in  bad  humor  when  the  patient  complains  of  pretended 
slights,  capriciousness,  etc.  One  appears  as  a strong  man, 


POSITIVE  TRANSFERENCE 


473 


conscious  of  his  goal,  with  whom  absolutely  nothing  is  to  be  ob- 
tained by  defiance,  not  even  a little  vexation. 

2.  The  positive  transference  is  to  be  accepted  in  analytically 
purified  and  sublimated  fo.rm 

Freud  emphasizes  that  the  unobjectionable  and  conscious 
components  of  the  transference  may  be  the  “hearers  of  results” 
as  in  other  methods  of  treatment.*  If  someone  should  ask  why 
the  analysis  is  still  necessary  then,  it  must  be  said  that  often 
the  transference  may  not  be  strong  enough  where  the  persist- 
ence of  the  instinct  in  the  infantile  fixation  does  not  show 
through  without  analysis  and  therefore  is  not  exposed.  If  one 
fears  further  that  by  the  analysis  of  the  transference,  this  rela- 
tion will  be  preserved,  this  fact  will  serve  as  assurance,  that  the 
analysis  annuls  only  the  neurotic,  infantile  characteristics  of 
the  transference  improperly  gained  from  interchange,  but  on 
the  other  hand,  breaks  a path  to  a healthy  esteem  of  the  analyst, 
a highly  valuable  affection.  Riklin  puts  it  in  excellent  form : 
“The  transference  relation  is  to  be  dissolved  and  changed  into 
another  relation  in  which  the  physician  is  really  what  he  is, 
something  which  an  actual  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  world  and 
not  a relation  distorted  by  the  lenses  of  the  transference-glasses 
brings  about.  ’ ’ t 

Hence  the  transference  can  never  come  to  “being  in  love.” 
Where  it  comes  to  view  as  such,  it  is  to  be  at  once  disclosed, 
though  not  brusquely,  but  as  psychologically  necessary,  as  illu- 
sory in  nature  and  to  be  sublimated. f It  is  quite  in  order  that 
the  subject  may  wish  to  be  loved  by  the  analyst  but  he  should 
gain  this  love  by  valuable  moral  effort  whereby  he  may  grow  in 
his  love.  This  positive  transference  may  therefore  never  be 
infantile,  never  excessive  tenderness  compelling  flattery. 

• Zbl.  II,  p.  172. 

f Riklin,  u.  Psa.  Correspondenzbl.  f.  Schweizer  Arzte,  1912,  No.  27, 
p.  1019. 

t When  it  is  hard  for  a beginner  to  tell  a young  girl  that  she  is 
transferring  upon  him  in  amorous  manner,  he  thereby  betrays  his  vanity 
which  causes  him  to  forget  that  he  is  only  an  accidental  erotic  object 
and  is  not  really  meant  at  all. 


474 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


There  are  some  persons  who  fairly  exude  evidences  of  love  in 
order  to  blind  the  analyst,  to  guard  their  secret  and  to  maintain 
the  repression.  Thus,  the  so-called  incest  may  be  executed  in 
phantasy  on  the  analyst  for  the  father  and  this  is  to  be  pre- 
vented by  dissolving  the  infantile  relation.  After  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  false  motive,  there  still  always  remains  gratitude  and 
confidence  enough  besides,  to  support  a sympathetic  relation  to 
the  analyst. 

The  transference  should  also  never  lead  to  dependence. 
Otherwise,  the  subject  of  analysis  retreats  to  his  infantile  role 
and  guards  well  from  becoming  healthy  and  free.  The  analyst 
comes  into  the  father-  or  mother-role  and  the  childhood  is 
further  played  as  an  ugly  farce  in  the  dress  of  the  neurosis  or 
character  malformation. 

A strong  reserve  on  the  part  of  the  analyst  is  also  indicated 
because  the  patient  likes  to  cling  to  him  in  order  not  to  go  out 
into  reality  and  be  compelled  to  fulfill  his  life-tasks.  If  the 
educator  allows  him  to  remain  in  this  role,  then  all  is  lost. 
Languishingly,  the  pupil  makes  the  most  enormous  demands  for 
affection  and  avenges  himself  by  holding  fast  to  the  symptom. 
The  pampering  analyst  is  an  unskillful  man. 

If  the  analyst  proceeds  brutally  or  clumsily  with  the  break- 
ing of  the  positive  transference,  then  it  changes  into  its  opposite 
and  the  libido  regresses  just  so  much  the  deeper.  He  who  lays 
aside  a transference  form  and  has  no  new  one  in  its  place,  will 
inevitably  occupy  again  regressively  the  old  transference  way 
of  an  earlier  barbaric  or  past  cultural  stage,  says  Jung.*  The 
transference  is  only  to  be  dispensed  with  when  other  profitable 
compensations  annul  the  fear  of  regression.  Stekel  thinks  it 
is  sufficient  that  the  patient  knows  that  the  physician  does  not 
despise  and  does  not  love  him.f  I am  of  other  opinion.  Most 
pupils  could  not  accept  a pastor  who  remained  unsympathetic 
upon  the  confession  of  the  greatest  need  and  would  bring  to  an 
unemotional  confessor  of  that  kind,  insuperable  repulsion. 
Certainly,  the  analyst  may  not  be  led  so  far  by  his  sympathy 

* Jung,  Wandlungen,  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  273. 

t Stekel,  D.  versch.  Formen  d.  Ubertragung.  Zbl.  II,  p.  29. 


TREATMENT  OF  TRANSFERENCE 


475 


that  he  would  lose  the  purely  objective  judgment.  In  this,  I 
think  Freud  correct.*  The  sympathy  must  be  kept  in  close 
check  in  order  not  to  occasion  autistic  judgments  and  expose 
itself  to  the  resistances  of  the  patient.  But  I think  that  the 
latter  must  assume  a large  measure  of  sympathy  in  his  coun- 
selor. Who  would  carry  out  a long  and  difficult  analysis  with- 
out inner  sympathy?  To  conceal  his  good  wishes  artificially, 
imposes  a dissimulation  which  must  be  betrayed  and  avenged. 
But  of  course  the  analyst  should  purify  all  counter-transfer- 
ence by  keen  autoanalysis  and  present  absolutely  nothing  ex- 
cept sublimated  human  friendliness  in  order  that  he  fall 
neither  into  the  role  of  a father,  injuring  the  independence  of 
the  youth,  nor  into  that  of  a lover. 

To  this  end,  consequently,  the  analytic  physicians  refuse 
every  physical  examination  which  might  stimulate  the  exhibi- 
tion-instinct and  refer  the  patient  to  another  physician  in  case 
this  is  necessary,  ordinarily  to  a specialist.!  The  educator  will 
not  once  stroke  the  hands  of  the  youth  or  lay  his  own  hands  on 
his  shoulder.  Upon  every  opportunity,  he  will  show  that  he 
can  and  will  be  only  a way  to  a free  productive  life.  If  this 
thought  is  constantly  emphasized  and  supported  by  analysis, 
then  it  need  not  be  feared  that  the  transference  will  become  too 
strong  and  leave  the  pupil  dependent  on  the  analyst. 

In  order  to  obtain  a sublimated  relation  to  the  subject  di- 
rectly, one  avoids  all  unnecessary  confidences  and  relates  as 
little  as  possible  of  one ’s  self,  one ’s  own  needs,  weaknesses  and 
fates.  Only  apparently  does  one  thus  bring  the  other  to  speak. 
In  reality,  one  strengthens  the  resistance.  Freud  found : 
“This  technique  regularly  fails  in  severe  cases  in  the  aroused 
insatiability  of  the  patient  who  then  greatly  likes  to  reverse  the 
relation  and  finds  the  analysis  of  the  physician  more  interest- 
ing than  his  own.  Further,  the  dissolution  of  the  transference, 
one  of  the  chief  tasks  of  the  treatment,  is  rendered  difficult  by 
the  intimate  attitude  of  the  physician  so  that  the  possible  gain 
at  the  beginning  is  finally  more  than  offset.  The  physician 

* Freud,  Zur  Dynamik  d.  Ubertragung.  Zbl.  II,  p.  436. 

f Hitechmaun.  d.  120. 


476 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


should  be  opaque  to  the  analytic  patients  like  a mirror  and 
show  nothing  except  that  which  is  shown  to  him.  ’ ’ * The  edu- 
cator should  also  keep  his  pupil  away  from  his  family  and 
household  wherever  possible. 

Also,  in  the  analysis,  the  pedagogue  seeks  to  make  himself 
dispensable.  He  aids  to  self-analysis  and  the  pupil’s  own 
compromise  with  reality.  Thus  far,  Freud’s  method  corre- 
sponds to  that  of  Protestantism  and  stands  diametrically  op- 
posed to  the  Catholic'  institution  of  the  confessional. 

* Freud,  Zur  Dyuamik  d.  Ubertragung,  p.  488. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


RENDERING  LIFE-PROBLEMS  CONSCIOUS  AND  COM- 
PREHENDING THEM  BY  THE  AID  OF  ANALYSIS 

In  the  initial  stage  of  psychoanalysis,  the  attention  to  the 
past  seemed  the  only  condition  of  the  solution.  The  inhibited 
person,  so  it  was  thought,  suffered  from  unconscious  mem- 
ories; if  these  were  abreacted,  then  freedom  ruled.  There 
followed  an  epoch,  in  which  the  present  seemed  to  be  the 
deciding  factor,  since  the  transference  created  an  outlet  for 
the  previously  dammed-up  libido  now  released  by  analysis. 
But  also  at  this  point,  one  could  not  stop.  Freud,  Stekel, 
Jung  and  all  the  other  psychoanalysts  wished  under  no  cir- 
cumstances to  have  their  patients  attached  to  them  but  to  make 
them  useful  for  the  daily  life.  Stekel  says:  “We  must  use 
our  mighty  influence  which  we  gain  over  our  patients  to  force 
them  with  gentle  authority  to  work.  And  it  is  our  greatest 
triumph  when  the  patient  takes  up  his  work  again  and  loves  it. 
We  should  not  hesitate  to  tell  the  patient  the  whole  truth  to 
his  face:  ‘You  will  not  work.’  ” * In  this  statement,  a very 
important  part  of  the  task  is  without  doubt  named ; but  work 
is  not  the  only  end  by  far.  Many  neurotics  work  themselves 
almost  to  death,  for  example,  housewives  who  do  not  wish  to 
give  their  husbands  their  best,  their  whole  love.  Just  the 
over-industrious  individuals  are  very  often  counter-reaction- 
aries who  cannot  do  the  one  thing  which  is  necessary.  We 
pedagogues  know  as  well  as  the  physician  how  to  esteem  work 
highly  and  to  see  its  beauty,  its  hygienic  necessity.  We  pity 
the  man  who  is  shut  off  from  work.  But  we  also  know  that 
for  a complete  life,  more  than  the  capacity  and  opportunity  for 
work  is  necessary.  The  harmonious  participation  in  the  to- 

* Stekel,  Nervose  Angstzustande,  p.  285. 

477 


478 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


tality  of  the  world,  the  conception  of  the  own  life-vocation  in 
struggles  and  sufferings  corresponding  to  the  individual  law, 
the  best  possible  realization  of  the  religious-moral  ideal,  the 
gaining  of  correct  perspective  by  denial  and  self-control,  the 
acquirement  of  a view  of  the  world  and  life,  satisfying  the 
just  claims  of  the  spirit,  the  proper  finding  of  the  object  of 
love,  all  this  is  likewise  indispensable  for  a full,  well-rounded 
life.  Thus  we  are  compelled  to  give  the  future  careful  con- 
sideration as  well  as  the  connection  to  the  past  and  present. 

1.  The  Necessity  op  the  Analytic  Attitude  Towaed 

Life 

It  can  happen  in  the  analysis  that  the  subliminal  remnants 
of  the  past  are  well  investigated,  a favorable  transference 
prevails,  and  still  the  inhibitions  of  instinct  persist.  All  an- 
alysts are  accustomed  then  to  judge  that  the  neurotic  does  not 
at  all  wish  to  be  free.  If  one  inquires  after  the  reason  for 
this  not-wishing,  the  views  diverge.  Freud  assumes  that  the 
patient  does  not  wish  to  let  his  libido  flow  into  reality  because 
he  is  fixed  in  infantilism,  Jung  believes,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  the  patient  may  of  course  be  fixed  in  infantilism  but  that 
he  is  often  in  that  condition  because  he  does  not  want  to  come 
out  into  reality  with  his  libido  or  because  he  does  not  like  to 
bring  about  the  harmony  between  inner  compulsion  and  the 
outer  world.  According  to  Freud,  the  individual  bound  up  in 
his  complexes  is  drawn  back  by  the  infantilism,  again  be- 
come real  as  a result  of  an  actual  conflict ; according  to  Jung, 
the  resistances  against  the  free  life-activity  in  reality  or  the 
adaptation  to  these  resistances,  drive  him  back  into  the  in- 
fantile stage,  therewith  to  the  incest,  which  however,  is  not 
actually  meant  but  has  only  symbolical  significance.  Both 
men,  however,  are  agreed  in  saying  that  the  neurosis  depends 
on  an  inner  conflict  (Freud  describes  it  as  between  the  ego 
and  the  libido),*  thus  not  only  a difficulty  in  the  outer  world 
but  a mental  disharmony,  which  of  course  is  connected  with  the 

* Freud,  U.  neurot.  Erkrankungstypen.  Zbl.  II,  p.  301. 


ANALYTIC  ATTITUDE  TOWARD  LIFE  479 


attitude  toward  reality,  which  causes  adherence  to  the  autism 
of  the  manifestation. 

It  has  happened  to  many  analysts  as  to  myself  that  a patient, 
in  spite  of  careful  analysis,  remains  for  a time  ur cured  and 
somewhat  later,  without  further  artificial  help,  suddenly  gets 
well.  This  case  happened  especially  often  when  a removal  to 
other  surroundings  occurred.  One  customarily  assumes  then 
that  the  transference  not  having  been  dissolved  until  then,  the 
patient  by  clinging  to  the  symptom  has  not  been  willing  to  give 
up  the  pleasure  of  working  together  with  the  educator  or  in  a 
negative  transference  to  give  up  the  pleasure  of  malicious  joy 
in  the  educator’s  fruitless  work.  Such  cases  certainly  do 
occur. 

If  we  now  proceed  with  Freud  from  the  concepts  of  the 
repression  and  the  resistance,  we  are  justified,  indeed  obliged, 
to  seek  another  interpretation,  especially  when  we  remember 
what  we  heard  concerning  regression  and  compensation.  How 
would  it  be  if  we  were  to  assume  that  the  repression  and  fixa- 
tion may  have  been  so  removed  in  those  cases  where  the  cure 
does  not  directly  follow  the  analytic  work,  that  the  forces  en- 
gaged in  the  conflict  found  an  adjustment?  Thus,  we  may 
think  that  the  son  dominated  by  the  father-complex,  who  was 
tortured  by  writer’s  cramp,  who  got  well  after  leaving  the 
parents’  house,  may  have  perceived  that  he  need  not  fear 
the  father,  that  he  was  in  a position  to  conduct  his  own  life, 
that  he  could  do  something  worth  while  according  to  plans  of 
his  own.  And  therefore  he  left  the  infantile  fixation.  Or  he 
kept  himself,  as  I saw  many  times  earlier,  bound  religiously 
by  the  fifth  commandment  or  such  words  as:  “The  eye  that 
mocketh  at  his  father,  and  despiseth  to  obey  his  mother,  the 
ravens  of  the  valley  shall  pick  it  out,  and  the  young  eagles 
shall  eat  it.”  (Proverbs  xxx,  17.)  Now  he  perceives  that 
this  saying  does  not  come  from  God  but  from  the  obsessional 
neurotic  spirit  of  the  post-exile  hierarchy ; he  learns  to  under- 
stand more  deeply  the  words  of  Jesus:  “For  this  cause  shall 
a man  leave  his  father  and  mother  and  cleave  to  his  wife.” 
(Mark  x,  7)  or  Mark  iii,  32f. : “For  whosoever  shall  do  the 


4«0 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


will  of  God,  the  same  is  my  brother,  and  my  sister,  and  my 
mother.”  He  recognizes  in  this  test  of  obedience  a higher 
piety  and  purer  religious  experience.  Would  it  not  be  per- 
missible according  to  our  theoretical  principles,  to  assume  that 
this  deeper  conception  of  the  problem  of  life,  this  clear  con- 
scious attitude  toward  life  may  have  taken  from  him  that  fear 
which  drove  him  to  regression  into  the  infantile  attitude? 

The  question  of  the  attitude  toward  life  must  be  discussed 
again  and  again  in  every  thorough  analysis.  For  every  dream 
expresses  a relation  to  reality  or  certain  of  its  constituent 
parts  and  a positive  or  negative  striving.  Also,  where  the 
attraction  of  the  infantile  and  unreal  is  strong,  the  wish  to 
do  this  or  that  with  reality  cannot  be  mistaken.  Both  the 
wall  from  which  one  rebounds  into  the  regression  and  the 
force  which  drives  against  that  wall  must  be  heeded  in  the 
analysis.  But  the  strongest  barrier  and  the  mightiest  instinc- 
tive impulse  is  not  contained  in  every  manifestation  and  its 
nearest  associations.  They  must  often  be  deduced  from 
these. 

Also  where  the  cause  of  the  repression  is  not  directly  ex- 
pressed in  the  manifestation  and  associations,  it  must  be 
recovered  in  the  analysis  or  at  least  in  the  working  over  of  the 
analytic  material.  Even  from  purely  theoretical  grounds,  this 
work  belongs  to  the  full  understanding  of  the  declarations  of 
the  unconscious.  In  interpretation,  the  causal  derivation  must 
appear. 

A practical  interest  is  added:  I found  that  in  the  most 
careful  analysis  of  the  past  and  the  transference  with  my 
pupil,  I came  to  a standstill.  Then  I came  upon  the  thought 
close  at  hand  to  a pedagogue,  the  barrier  is  in  a hated  duty 
which  my  patient  would  evade.’*'  I therefore  directed  his 

* Even  in  my  first  larger  psychoanalytic  works,  I emphasized  the 
offering  of  ethical-religious  regulation  of  instinct.  (Ev.  Freiheit,  1909, 
Sep.,  p.  31,  1910,  p.  24.)  I saw  ever  more  plainly  that  religious  and 
moral  needs  were  released  in  people.  The  demands  of  the  genuine 
Christian  religion  and  morals  embraced  in  the  principle  of  Jesus  (love 
for  God,  fellowmen  and  self)  are  exactly  what  was  revealed  to  me 
by  psychoanalysis  as  hygienic  according  to  nature.  But  one  should 


LIFE-PROBLEMS 


481 


attention  to  this  point  and  with  the  help  of  analysis  found 
this  stumbling-block,  this  wall,  which  caused  the  relapse.  And 
now  it  was  the  pupil’s  affair  to  take  a clear  position  to  the 
life-problem.  The  refusal  against  the  command  of  a mighty 
mental  impulse  then  often  showed"  itself  as  an  illusion,  a 
mistake  as  a result  of  infantile  complex-blending.  The  cure 
could  then  be  attained  by  energetic  execution  of  this  striving 
or  by  honest  renunciation  of  a dispensable  good,  by  purification 
of  the  ideal  or  forcible  cutting  through  of  difficulties. 

When  Freud  asserts  that  the  analysis  should  only  be  resorted 
to  when  a shorter  method  does  not  accomplish  the  end,  he  can- 
not and  would  not  have  objected  altogether  to  an  analytically 
prepared  elimination  of  the  causes  of  repression.  But  one 
must  not  overlook  the  difficulties  in  doing  this.  We  shall  speak 
of  this  in  the  next  section. 

If  the  courage  for  life  has  broken  down,  then  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  causes  of  the  life-inhibitions  can  only  depress. 
E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann  describes  very  beautifully  the  powerless 
dwelling  on  analytic  knowledge:  “.  . . It  seemed  to  me 
as  if  that  which  we  call  in  general  dreams  and  fancy  might 
probably  be  the  symbolical  knowledge  of  the  secret  thread 
which  runs  through  our  life,  tying  it  fast  in  all  its  condi- 
tions, as  he  may  be  considered  as  lost,  who  thinks  with  that 
knowledge  to  have  won  the  power  to  pluck  out  violently  that 
thread  and  try  conclusions  with  the  dark  force  which  rules 
over  us.  ” * The  poet  here  describes  an  inhibited  individual 
whom  the  autoanalysis  has  brought  to  a penetrating  self-knowl- 
edge. But  on  the  one  hand,  the  analysis  has  not  probed  deep 
enough,  for  it  leaves  a dark  controlling  force  over  him,  instead 
of  illuminating  the  forces  lying  within  him,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  forces  leading  to  the  outer  world,  especially  the  transfer- 
ence, are  left  out  of  consideration.  If  the  resistances  against 
the  sounding  of  the  individual’s  inmost  nature,  against  the 
analyst  and  against  the  attitude  toward  reality  are  overcome 

not  forget:  hygiene  gives  general  rules,  it  does  not  tell  each  what  is  the 
best  for  him  in  this  or  that  case.  So  also  with  religion  and  morals. 

* E.  T.  A.  Holfman,  Die  Elixiere  des  Teufels,  Preface. 


482 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


in  sufficient  thoroughness,  then  there  comes  about  the  estab- 
lishment of  a useful  life-program,  even  though  many  dark 
depths  of  the  unconscious  remain  unanalyzed. 

2.  The  Treatment  of  the  Inner  Harmonization 

Even  though  Freud  and  Jung  differ  in  theoretical  con- 
ception, they  are  agreed  that  the  pupil  must  be  informed  con- 
cerning the  occasion  of  his  regression  to  the  infantile,  in  order 
that  he  may  renounce  the  autistic  solution  of  the  conflict.  He 
must  be  made  to  see  how  unworthy  is  the  flight  into  regression. 
The  ethical  difficulties  must  be  overcome  by  moral  forces  at 
the  level  of  reality  and  the  immoral  autism  replaced  by  a real 
achievement.  Therein  the  infantile  love-wishes  must  be  sac- 
rificed as  in  every  cure  of  a neurosis,  a moral  fact,  a renuncia- 
tion of  ease,  of  cheap  pleasure,  of  unproductive  phantasy  is 
needed  for  the  purpose  of  a higher  application  of  the  life- 
force. 

Thus,  psychoanalysis  reveals  to  us  the  necessity  and  beauty 
of  that  idea  which  finds  such  exalted  expression  in  the  Chris- 
tian symbol  of  the  cross,  in  the  Christian  doctrine  of  sac- 
rifice. The  new  life  which  seems  by  the  law  of  the  inner  nature 
as  most  valuable  goal,  is  often  attainable  only  by  tremendous 
moral  effort,  wherein  the  personality  of  the  analyst  can  afford 
a mighty  aid.  But  the  struggle  will  at  least  be  conducted 
against  the  real  enemy,  it  will  not,  as  in  asceticism  and  moral- 
suggestion  pedagogy,  be  conducted  against  an  imaginary 
enemy,  against  a mirage.  The  moral  demand,  which  the  an- 
alysis discloses,  is  often  incomparably  harder  to  fulfill  than  the 
commands  of  many  teachers  of  morals. 

But  just  in  this  position  toward  the  moral  law,  the  educator 
must  apply  himself  with  especial  care.  Freud  reminds  us 
that  many  a neurosis  arises  from  a struggle  waged  for  a moral 
ideal  beyond  the  strength  present.  “The  change  which  the 
patients  strive  for,  but  accomplish  only  imperfectly,  or  not  at 
all,  has  uniformly  the  value  of  a progress  in  the  sense  of  the 
real  life.  It  is  otherwise  when  one  measures  with  an  ethical 
standard;  one  sees  people  become  ill  as  often  when  they  lay 


LIFE-PROBLEMS 


483 


aside  an  ideal  as  when  they  wish  to  attain  one.”*  Every 
analyst  will  admit  that  an  illness  very  often  first  begins  when 
a previously  practised  vice  is  given  up  (see  above  66,  76,  98, 
etc.).  The  disease  represents  then  a compensation  which  has 
miscarried.  Certainly,  however,  the  regression  into  unsuitable 
realization  of  infantile  wishes  denotes  a source  of  new  mental 
complications  and  pathological  phenomena,  as  Freud  shows 
in  his  article  on  ‘‘wilde  Psychoanalyse”  (wild  psychoanaly- 
sis). 

What  is  to  be  done  ? In  the  cases  mentioned  by  Freud,  the 
regression  was  utilizable  as  the  easiest  safety  valve.  A mastur- 
bator who  becomes  ill,  perhaps  destroyed  his  strength,  in  that 
he  was  tormented  by  awful  fear  of  the  physical  and  moral  dan- 
ger of  his  autoeroticism  or  wished  to  escape  by  violeuoe  an 
obsessing  phantasy ; if  one  had  held  before  him  more  valuable 
compensations  in  their  beauty  and  attainability,  such  as  friend- 
ship, nature  study,  scientific  enrichment,  religion,  or  if  one  had 
first  liberated  the  obsessional  idea  and  thrown  back  the  bolts 
of  the  doors  to  those  sublimations,  then  perhaps  this  illness 
would  not  have  resulted.  Also  in  the  other  cases  cited  by 
Freud,  a favorable  sublimation  might  have  resulted  if  analysis 
and  transference  had  rightly  lent  a helping  hand  and  trans- 
ported the  decisive  attack  to  the  ground  of  the  real  psycholog- 
ical motives  and  possibilities. 

I mean  thus  that  analysis  has  on  one  side  to  ascertain  the 
existing  fixation  and  on  the  other,  the  wishes  and  possibilities 
present.  It  should  in  the  first  place  show  us  why  an  inhibi- 
tion to  development  has  been  present  since  childhood  or  a 
relapse  to  the  earlier  stage  resulted,  thus  reveal  the  recent 
and  old  causes  of  the  manifestation.  Therein  will  become 
visible  what  kind  of  forces  of  attraction  entice  from  the  past 
and  what  are  the  forces  of  repulsion  against  work,  that  is, 
what  present  shock  drives  the  life-force  into  the  dependence 
on  the  unconscious,  what  task  the  person  in  question  seeks  to 
escape  by  this  plunge  into  the  regression.  But  the  regression 
already  serves,  as  we  know,  the  purpose  of  forging  new  plans 

* Freud,  U.  neur.  Erkrankungstypen.  Zbl.  II,  p.  299. 


484 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


for  the  future  by  the  aid  of  the  past.  This  purpose,  directed 
toward  the  future,  is  suggested  in  the  manifestation.  Even 
before  consciousness  can  say  what  meaning  it  has  in  mind, 
indeed  often  in  contrast  to  its  assertion,  the  mind  sketches 
its  plans  beneath  the  threshold  of  consciousness,  which  plans 
show  their  symbolical  signals  in  the  manifestation. 

Not  every  dream  contains  a whole  life-program  in  outline, 
as  little  as  one  always  consciously  thinks  of  his  highest  pur- 
poses in  life.  But  sooner  or  later,  this  matter  of  highest  im- 
portance comes  to  manifestation.  Nothing  could  be  farther 
from  correct  than  to  consider  the  tendency  discovered  by  an- 
alysis as  an  authoritative  voice  of  God,  an  unchangeable  life- 
command.  The  wish  analyzed  to-day  cannot  perhaps  bear  the 
light  of  conscious  thinking  and  by  the  morrow  the  life-force 
may  have  found  another  goal  which  speaks  forth  from  the 
dream  in  its  secret  speech.  Perhaps  this  wish,  too,  when 
traced  back  to  its  roots  by  analysis,  must  be  sacrificed  as  not 
genuine,  unsuitable  to  the  deeper  demands.  Only  that  which 
stands  penetrating  analysis  and  the  rational  adaptation  to  the 
possibilities  present  in  reality,  reveals  the  true  and  actual 
life-problem. 

Thus,  one  guards  against  leaving  the  analytic  subject  to 
provisional  compensations.  One  ever  seeks  for  the  uncon- 
scious motives  of  the  emerging  life-demands  until  one  is  cer- 
tain of  having  found  the  expression  of  the  innermost  life-will. 
On  this  journey  of  exploration,  one  always  has  to  deal  with 
resistances  which  stand  opposed  to  the  healthy  guidance  of 
instinct.  The  subject  of  the  analysis,  however,  must  always 
test  the  material  gained  by  analysis  and  compare  it  with  the 
possibilities  of  reality  so  that  a conscious  self-determination, 
free  from  the  inhibitions  of  the  past,  may  form  the  end  result 
of  the  whole  work. 

Among  the  resistances  against  the  analytic  finding  of  the 
life-program,  I name  as  two  of  the  most  frequent:  The  fear 
of  moral  decadence  and  mental  impoverishment  as  result  of 
the  analysis.  Both  fears  rest  on  errors : The  first  considera- 
tion, Freud  parries  with  the  remark,  “the  mental  and  somatic 


DANGERS  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 


485 


force  of  a (immoral)  wish  impulse,  when  its  repression  has 
once  failed,  proves  incomparably  stronger  when  it  is  uncon- 
scious than  when  it  is  conscious,  so  that  it  can  be  only  weak- 
ened by  the  rendering  it  conscious.”*  That  a morally  de- 
fective analyst  can  seduce  to  immorality  is  not  to  be  denied ; 
but  should  one  make  it  a reproach  to  surgery  if  an  unprinci- 
pled surgeon  performs  a criminal  abortion?  A conscientious 
educator,  however,  will  demonstrate  the  laws  of  morality  un- 
derstood in  the  highest  sense — not  merely  a questionable  inter- 
pretation of  these  laws — as  the  command  of  mental  hygiene 
and  further  the  moral  impulse.  As  a matter  of  fact,  many 
people,  who,  in  spite  of  desperate  effort,  must  be  subject  to 
immoral  instincts,  have  been  gained  by  psychoanalysis  for  a 
pure  life,  valuable  in  the  sense  of  culture,  of  personality  and 
of  society.! 

The  second  objection  also  goes  lame.  Certainly,  many  great 
artistic  and  scientific  triumphs  spring  from  the  repression. 
But  where  a person,  as  a result  of  his  need,  becomes  incapable 
of  existence,  what  good  does  his  genius  do  him?  I have  car- 
ried out  some  analyses  of  artists,  constantly  with  the  result  that 
the  power  of  creation  increased.  Occasionally,  for  a period, 
the  feeling  of  desolation  appeared,  for  a new  attitude  toward 
life  must  be  won.  Then,  however,  the  artistic  production  pros- 
pered so  much  the  better.  Further,  the  manifestations,  com- 
prehensible only  individually,  therefore  worthless  for  society, 
were  replaced  by  socially  suitable,  esthetically  valuable  for- 

* Freud,  U.  Psa.,  p.  59. 

t One  cannot  deny  that  all  persons  show  a certain  ambivalence  be- 
tween the  individual  imperatives  of  their  natures  and  the  moral  de- 
mands. Often  those  unmoral  impulses  are  conditioned  by  complexes 
and  removable  by  analysis.  If  this  is  not  the  case — as  in  the  moral 
imbecile — then  the  conscience  of  the  analyst  decides  whether  he  will 
leave  the  consciously-executed  unmoral  act  as  the  lesser  evil  as  com- 
pared with  the  neurosis  and  neurotic  debauchery.  The  psychoanalysis 
gets  on  well  as  mere  theory  and  technique  with  very  diverse  ethical 
conceptions.  It  must  get  along  with  frivolous  laxity  as  with  strictest 
austerity  as  a deeper  and  freer  morality.  The  means  of  art  are  at  the 
disposal  of  the  great  master  as  well  as  of  the  morally  depraved  artist. 
Obviously  we  deplore  every  misuse  of  psychoanalysis  for  immoral  ends; 
the  analysis  in  itself  is  innocent. 


486 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


mations.*  I have  never  yet  seen  that  an  able  person  experi- 
enced a mental  deterioration  from  analysis  but  very  often 
the  opposite.  That  which  the  analytic  pedagogy  eliminates  is 
only  the  sham  and  illusion.  Truth  however  is  a mother. 

If  the  patient  has  recognized  his  holiest  imperatives  and 
possibilities  determined  by  his  nature,  thus,  his  life-duty,  then 
he  must  decide  what  he  will  undertake.  lie  renounces  or 
executes  his  wish  inwardly.  He  makes  concessions  to  reality 
in  outright  renunciation  or  conquers  self  in  honorable  en- 
deavor. What  he  does,  happens  from  full  conviction  with 
undivided  soul.  His  fixation  can  be  dissolved  by  his  subordi- 
nating the  egoistic  will  to  the  good  of  the  community,  but 
further  by  giving  to  self-assertion  the  victory  over  the  tendency 
to  self-denial.  Under  some  circumstances,  only  the  decisive 
act  tears  away  the  barricade  which  cuts  off  the  forward  march 
of  the  instinct. 

I learned  of  the  cure  of  a physician,  who,  in  the  analysis, 
stuck  on  an  obstacle  for  a fourth  of  a year  until  he  decided  to 
take  a painful  step  but  one  necessary  to  his  professional 
activity.  Another  subject  of  analysis  was  freed  in  great  part 
from  his  severe  inhibitions,  which  expressed  themselves  par- 
ticularly in  obsessional  phenomena,  as  soon  as  he  put  away 
the  fear  of  his  strict  Catholic  parents,  which  he  had  harbored 
for  years,  and  went  over  to  Protestantism. 

Freud  justly  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  analyst 
should  not  undertake  to  guide  the  pupil  hither  and  thither 
according  to  wish,  ‘ ‘ Not  all  neurotics,  ’ ’ he  says,  ‘ ‘ bring  much 
talent  for  sublimation ; of  many  among  them,  one  can  assume 
that  in  general  they  would  not  have  become  ill  if  they  had 
possessed  the  art  of  sublimating  their  instinct.  If  one  forces 
them  to  sublimation  excessively  and  cuts  off  from  them  the 
nearest  and  pleasantest  gratifications  of  instinct,  one  usually 
makes  life  still  more  difficult  for  them  than  they  would  have 
found  it  otherwise.  As  physician,  one  must  be  content  to 
have  won  back,  not  perfection,  but  some  capacity  for  per- 

* Compare  my  article:  D.  Entst.  d.  kiinstl.  Inspiration.  Imago  II 
(1913),  further  the  important  statements  of  Rank  ( Inzeat-Motiv) . 


CAPACITY  FOR  SUBLIMATION 


487 


formance  and  enjoyment.  It  is  to  be  considered  besides  that 
many  persons  are  rendered  ill  right  in  the  attempt  to  sub- 
limate their  instincts  beyond  the  limit  set  by  their  organiza- 
tion and  that  in  those  capable  of  sublimation,  this  process  is 
ordinarily  executed  spontaneously  as  soon  as  their  inhibitions 
have  been  overcome  by  the  analysis.”  * We  pedagogues,  with 
our  youthful  material,  are  in  a far  more  favorable  position. 
We  believe  that  our  boys  and  girls  are  still  plastic  enough  to 
be  influenced  by  ideal  models.  We  carefully  guard  against 
compelling,  directing  and  moralizing.  We  seek,  however,  to 
render  possible  the  self-education  to  unimpeachable  moral  con- 
duct in  life.  That  we  show  by  word,  and  I hope  by  example, 
the  moral  demands  to  be  mild  and  inoffensive  in  their  winning, 
beneficient  beauty,  probably  does  the  child  good.  But  the 
educator  should  use  no  violence,  lest  he  create  new  repressions. 

In  most  analyses,  the  exploration  of  the  past,  the  attraction, 
takes  the  broadest  scope,  less  often  the  regulation  of  the  present 
(the  transference)  or  the  laying  out  of  plans  for  the  future. 
All  three  tasks  are  intimately  connected.  The  comprehension 
of  the  life-problem  corresponding  to  the  immanent  law  of  the 
personality  and  performance  in  reality  of  the  duty  embraced  in 
it,  that  is  the  highest  and  last  compensation  which  the  analysis, 
with  the  help  of  the  transference,  must  bring  to  pass.  Konrad 
Ferdinand  Meyer  gives  in  these  words  a classical  description 
of  this  rebirth  from  his  own  experience : 

“I  was  bound  by  a grievous  dream, 

I did  not  live.  I lay  stark  in  the  dream, 

With  many  thousand  unused  hours 
The  present  now  raged  round  me. 

To  awaken  green  seed  from  the  dark  ground, 

It  needed  only  the  sun’s  rays  and  the  dew, 

I feel  how  a thousand  germs  are  sprouting. 

Day,  shine  in!  and  life  flow  out!”  f 

The  view  expressed  here  signifies  a new  and  difficult  appli- 
cation of  the  analysis  in  the  narrower  sense.  Originally,  an- 

* Freud,  Ratschlage  f.  d-  Arzt  bei  d.  psa.  Behandlung.  Zbl.  II,  488. 

t K.  F.  Meyer,  Ged.,  p.  139. 


488 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


alysis  applied  only  to  investigating  the  past,  then  the  trans- 
ference-analysis was  added.  Now,  the  unconscious  relations  to 
the  future  should  be  analyzed.  Thus,  the  task  of  present-day 
analysis  has  been  increased  threefold  in  relation  to  the  original. 
In  reality,  in  the  latter  work,  lies  an  abbreviation  of  the 
method,  because  the  shock  on  the  life  barriers  erected  by  the 
complex  constantly  influences  the  regression  anew.  In  gen- 
eral, neglecting  the  analysis  of  the  past  and  the  transference 
and  preferring  the  analysis  of  the  actual  conflict  is  to  be 
guarded  against. 

The  threefold  direction  of  the  analysis  follows,  of  neces- 
sity, from  the  psychoanalytic  principle  of  Freud  of  permitting 
the  patients  to  speak  freely  and  to  investigate  their  utterances. 
For  every  analytic  subject  reports  also  of  his  life  problems. 
Only  when  one  has  suggested  to  him  that  the  cause  of  his  dis- 
turbance lies  only  in  the  past,  will  he  speak  only  of  that.  But 
just  here,  lies  a particular  trick  of  the  resistance  and  an  ex- 
tremely clever  device  of  the  neurotic  in  opposing  the  restora- 
tion to  health.  Many  patients  are  actually  eager  to  dig  up 
their  past  because  thereby  they  best  escape  the  life-duty. 
Here  belong,  for  example,  most  lazy,  traumatic  neurotics  who 
extract  great  profit  from  their  illnesses.  Many  of  them  are 
glad  to  allow  their  past  and  the  transference  to  be  analyzed 
without  the  symptoms  being  disturbed.  If  one  brings  up  the 
subject  of  the  life-problem  then  first  begins  the  decision.  Now 
is  the  time  to  give  the  lazy  person  the  proof  by  analytic  sur- 
prising and  outwitting  that  the  suffering  is  wished-for.  One 
should  not  allow  one ’s  self  to  be  deceived  in  this. 

The  objection  that  the  neurotic,  whose  past  and  transference 
has  been  illuminated,  orients  himself  toward  the  future,  cer- 
tainly holds  true  in  many  cases  which  we  have  designated 
as  retention  types.  But  in  many  cases,  this  is  not  so.  These 
individuals  discover  hundreds  of  tricks,  hundreds  of  new  sym- 
bolical justifications  for  retaining  the  old  symptom  because 
the  normal  outlet  of  the  life-force,  which  the  inner  law  of 
life  and  the  external  situation  demand,  is  barred.  If  one  does 
not  come  upon  this  dam  of  the  libido,  then  the  regression  and 


AIM  OF  ANALYSIS 


489 


transference  mnst  necessarily  prove  too  strong.  Every  peda- 
gogue is  glad  when  he  can  avoid  both  emergency  exits,  the 
one  wholly,  the  other  partially.  Mere  analysis  of  the  past,  in 
general  acts  badly  on  the  duration  of  the  analysis  and  runs 
directly  contrary  to  the  fundamental  principles  of  Freudian 
analysis  which,  as  we  know,  considers  the  manifestation  as 
wishfulfillment,  thus  imparting  to  it  a forward-looking  char- 
acteristic. 

The  quicker  it  succeeds  in  guiding  the  life-force  to  the 
mastery  of  an  actual  task,  just  so  much  the  more  are  regression 
and  unmanly  transference  relieved.  Nevertheless,  one  must 
guard  against  wishing  to  accomplish  this  improvement  by  sug- 
gestive compulsion,  otherwise  the  resistance  is  only  increased, 
the  true  healing  rendered  impossible. 

The  aim  of  all  analysts  is  the  same : Moral  health. 
Goethe’s  saying  is  applicable  to  every  subject  of  analysis: 
“Where  I must  cease  to  be  moral,  I am  of  no  more  value.” 
( W W.,  herausg.  v.  Erich  Schmidt,  YI,  487.)  The  difference 
exists  only  in  the  fact  that  some  believe  every  one  capable 
of  solving  the  life-problem  for  himself  after  the  twofold  an- 
alysis, others,  however,  consider  threefold  exploration  toward 
all  sides  as  desirable  in  most  cases.  Since  all  are  agreed  that 
not  all  determinants  for  cure  are  necessarily  to  be  found,  since 
further,  all  trace  the  neurosis  back  to  a recent  impression,  a 
present  conflict,  a present  repression,  so  should  one,  it  seems 
to  me,  at  least  admit  that  the  analytic  explanation  of  the  life- 
problem  prescribed  by  the  personal  nature  and  relations  may 
often  perform  valuable  service.  I admit  that  I have  turned 
my  attention  thoughtfully  to  this  problem  since  I have  seen 
how  great  advantage  this  method  often  offers. 

“The  free  will,  I teach,  and  only  to  do,  should  you  learn, 
for  willing  is  doing.  ’ ’ This  saying  of  Nietzsche  is  also  useful 
to  the  analyst  for  doing  is  the  defensive  weapon  against  ex- 
hausting phantasticism.  But  the  will  itself  must  first  be 
freed.  And  for  this  purpose,  in  severe  cases,  the  analysis  is 
necessary. 


SECTION  3 


THE  COURSE  OF  THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC 
TREATMENT 

CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  ANALYTIC  EDUCATIONAL 
WORK  WITH  ESPECIAL  REGARD  TO  THE  OVER- 
COMING OF  THE  RESISTANCE 

In  this  chapter,  I do  not  speak  of  the  symptom-analysis 
which  has  the  manifestation  apperceived  in  brief,  and  collects 
associations  in  order  to  pass  on  at  once  to  the  interpretation 
and  cure.  We  come  very  often  by  this  summary  method  di- 
rectly to  the  goal  and  gain  results  which  astonish  the  onlooker 
almost  as  miracles.  Even  cases  which  appeared  extraordi- 
narily grave,  were  many  times  brought  to  order  in  a very  few 
consultations  or  indeed  sometimes  in  a single  one,  so  that  a life, 
long  unhappy,  assumed  a turn  ethically  most  satisfactory. 
Unwished-for  suggestion  by  transference,  advice  for  the  elim- 
ination of  inner  conflict  and  adaptation  to  the  life-problem 
aided  in  this. 

But  this  unreliable  abbreviation  is  not  to  be  considered  at 
this  time.  I want  to  warn  against  the  opinion  that  such  rapid 
treatments  are  the  ideal.  One  often  attains  lasting  cures  of 
the  symptom  with  them  but  many  times  also  only  temporary 
results.  And  the  most  important  thing  is:  the  high  educa- 
tional task  is  only  partially  performed.  One  can  often  in  a 
short  time  open  the  eyes  for  the  self -appreciation  of  the  moral 
task.  But  all  too  impatient  advance  may  bring  about  too 
violent  a shock.  It  is  criminal  arrogance  to  proceed  from 
a “veni,  vidi,  vici.  ” The  physician,  from  conscientiousness, 

490 


PREPARATION  FOR  PSYCHOANALYSIS  491 


stands  in  danger  of  wanting  to  advance  too  rapidly : he  wishes 
to  spare  his  patient  the  considerable  expense  of  a longer  treat- 
ment. The  pedagogue  can  easily  be  tempted  to  allow  the  false 
brilliance  of  moral  counsel  to  play  too  early.  Not  that  one 
should  anxiously  go  out  of  one’s  way  to  avoid  a rapid  cure. 
The  patient,  as  well  as  the  analyst,  is  glad  of  surprises.  But 
one  makes  it  a duty  to  replace  “cito  et  jucunde”  (quick  and 
pleasant)  by  good  and  thorough. 

1.  The  Previous  Preparation  for  Psychoanalysis 

Even  at  the  beginning  of  the  treatment,  one  follows  the 
rule  that  the  patient  should  be  allowed  to  talk  as  freely  as 
possible.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  manner  and 
method  by  which  the  patient  starts  in,  is  important  for  the 
diagnosis  of  his  condition.  The  first  statement  often  reveals, 
in  characteristic  form,  where  the  trouble  is  located.* 

A profound  hysterical  patient  said  to  me  right  after  greet- 
ing me : “ Give  me  your  word  of  honor  that  you  will  tell  my 
father  nothing  that  I confide  to  you.”  Actually,  the  negative 
father-complex  played  the  decisive  role. 

Usually,  the  visitor  will  say  why  he  has  come  and  tell  some 
of  his  symptoms.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  many  are  unable 
to  describe  these  symptoms  in  correct,  precise  manner. 
Further,  many  reveal  important  symptoms  only  weeks  later, 
to  the  surprise  of  the  analyst.  Most  dangerous  for  the  edu- 
cator are  these  hidden  and  intentionally  concealed  signs  of 
disease,  especially  the  suicidal  tendency. 

When  the  case  is  not  a matter  of  minor  affairs,  as  a nervous 
tic  or  moral  or  religious  affairs  which  do  not  concern  the  phy- 
sician, the  pedagogue  will  first  have  his  visitor  examined  by  a 
physician  and  allow  him  to  share  the  responsibility  for  the 
analysis.  At  this  point,  one  is  often  in  a risky  position  when 
one  can  consult  no  neurologist  skilled  in  analysis.  Our  med- 
ical practitioners,  schooled  in  a highly  one-sided  physiology, 
are  inclined  greatly  to  overestimate  the  organic  disturbance. 

*Freud  (in  confirmation  of  Adler),  Bemerkungen  ii.  e.  Fall  von 
Zwangsneurose,  Jahrb.  I,  p.  360. 


492 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


I,  as  a layman,  would  not  venture  to  give  this  judgment  if 
the  great  body  of  psychotherapeutic  physicians  did  not  raise 
a unanimous  complaint  over  this  unfortunate  state  of  affairs. 
It  is  truly  pitiful  how  they  attack  the  host  of  hysterical  troubles 
with  pills  and  potions,  take  the  stomach-pump  and  knife  as 
aids  and  treat  people  as  if  they  were  merely  bundles  of  mus- 
cle fibres,  nerves,  tendons  and  bones.  He  who,  like  every  or- 
derly and  experienced  psychoanalyst,  esteems  medical  science 
and  looks  in  admiration  on  its  many  achievements,  is  deeply 
grieved  to  see  how,  under  this  materialistic  practice,  not  only 
is  the  body  maltreated  and  often  injured  but  also  the  seat  of 
the  trouble,  the  mental  complication,  receives  impulses  to  con- 
tinue its  destruction  of  moral  and  intellectual  power.  With 
downright  sorrow  it  must  be  declared  that  a multitude  of 
patients  suffer  for  years,  to  speak  with  the  Gospel,  much  from 
many  physicians,  indeed  are  tortured  in  unjustifiable  manner. 
If  “Christian  Science”  with  its  immeasurable  exaggerations 
did  so  much  damage  to  the  reputation  of  physicians  in  many 
places,  so,  not  a few  of  those  physicians  are  guilty  who  left 
the  patients  in  the  lurch  with  their  physiological  prescrip- 
tions, so  that  the  so-called  Christian  Science  offered  the  suf- 
fering ones  infinitely  more,  since  it  freed  them  from  their 
needs  and  healed  them.  It  should  be  expressly  emphasized 
that  also  among  the  non-analytic  physicians,  there  are  many 
excellent  psychologists  and  educators,  that  many  of  them 
know  that  the  secret  of  their  success  lies  not  in  potions  and 
powders  but  in  the  force  of  their  personalities.  But  that 
on  the  other  hand,  an  infinite  amount  of  harm  is  done  because 
of  a lack  of  psychological  understanding  and  pedagogical 
skill,  must  unfortunately  be  admitted  by  all  medical  author- 
ities who  have  gained  psychotherapeutic  experience. 

What  should  one  say  when  an  hysterical  girl  who  is  tor- 
mented by  an  experience,  has  her  stomach  washed  out  three 
times  a day  with  two  liters  of  water  for  six  weeks?  (142). 
Who  will  be  surprised  that  the  trouble  became  not  a hair  bet- 
ter? Or  when  a woman  suffers  from  symbolical  representa- 
tion of  birth-wishes  in  the  form  of  violent  cramps  (418), 


PEDAGOGUE  AND  PHYSICIAN 


498 


should  one  he  surprised  when,  after  the  painful  pelvic  opera- 
tion, not  only  do  the  pains  persist  but  also  a phobia  (fear  of 
burglars)  has  been  added?  Or  can  the  pedagogue  approve 
when  a conservative  neurologist  forbids  a girl,  who  suffers 
from  severe  anxiety-hysteria  and  can  tell  no  one  of  her  erotic 
secrets,  to  speak  and  to  laugh?  Supported  by  analytic  au- 
thorities, I allowed  myself  from  the  beginning  to  speak  very 
much  with  the  patient  and  occasionally  also  to  laugh,  and 
attained  at  once  a pronounced  improvement.  Or  must  one 
stand  in  astonished  admiration  when  another  physician  advised 
the  girl  in  all  seriousness,  for  shaking  of  the  head,  to  have 
the  throat  muscles  attacked  surgically,  the  head  would  then 
be  askew  but  the  shaking  would  be  over.  The  same  hero  of 
the  knife  would,  according  to  this  method,  have  to  cut  the 
muscles  of  the  eyelids,  the  knees  and  feet  for  the  tic  wandered 
from  place  to  place  while  the  analysis  which  had  begun  but 
been  prematurely  interrupted  by  external  mishap,  not  only 
eliminated  the  anxiety  and  insomnia  but  also  the  majority  of 
the  tics. 

As  further  difficulty,  there  is  added  the  fact  that  many  dis- 
eases cannot  be  diagnosticated  even  by  the  best  physicians  a 
priori  as  to  their  psycho-  or  physio-genesis.  Many  times,  only 
the  analysis  gives  certain  conclusions. 

Nevertheless,  the  pedagogue  is  advised  constantly  to  work 
with  the  physician  but  he  will  obviously  prefer  the  physician 
skilled  in  analysis.  For  the  hostile  physician,  he  will  create 
by  his  analytic  achievements  comprehension  for  the  new  ped- 
agogic method.  For  the  rest,  he  will  subordinate  himself  in 
all  cases  where  it  is  a question  of  the  sick,  even  when  he  is  of 
another  opinion.  Hence,  he  will  take  only  cases  in  which 
he  does  not.  have  to  fear  the  intervention  of  the  physician 
hostile  to  analysis.  Some  people  may  think  that  I humble  the 
pedagogue  to  the  physician.  But  even  in  regard  to  medical 
law  and  its  blessings  as  in  the  face  of  the  injurious  efforts  of 
quacks  with  and  without  religious  etiquette,  I consider  such 
discretion  the  correct  thing.  In  this  opinion,  I am  guided 
by  the  experience  that  the  analytic  pedagogy,  by  virtue  of  its 


494 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


magnitude  and  effectiveness,  will  certainly  win  its  field  of 
application  without  any  great  difficulties. 

Whether  one  is  authorized  to  do  the  analysis  or  if  it  is  a 
question  of  healthy  individuals,  one  states  to  the  subject  the 
conditions  attached  to  the  carrying  out  of  the  analysis.  I give 
as  the  most  important  conditions: 

1.  The  subject  is  obligated  to  tell  as  completely  as  possible 
all  associations  which  come  to  his  mind,  whether  these  may  be 
unimportant,  irrelevant,  unpleasant  for  the  pupil  or  educator 
or  ugly. 

One  always  repeats  this  supreme  rule  again  when  offences 
against  it  come  to  light,  which  is  the  case  with  all  patients, 
even  the  most  agreeable.  One  shows  that  the  analyst,  in 
exact  obedience  to  Jesus’  words,  “Judge  not’’  (Matthew  vii, 
1)  will,  under  no  circumstances,  censure  anything,  that  the 
person  is  not  responsible  for  impulses  suddenly  appearing 
or  repressed,  coming  to  light  in  the  analysis,  that  all  people, 
even  the  holiest  and  purest,  have  their  base  desires  without 
deserving  contempt  on  that  account,  that  the  analyst  takes 
nothing  as  evil  even  though  he  be  insulted  by  the  patient  and 
treated  with  sadistic  wishes. 

2.  The  subject  promises  to  take  no  important  step  during 
the  analysis  without  informing  the  analyst  of  his  intention. 
Thereby  one  protects  his  pupils  from  overhasty  acts  which  are 
dictated  as  inferior  compensations  of  the  complex.  This  sec- 
ond rule  naturally  comes  into  application  only  in  strongly 
neurotic  persons. 

3.  If  the  analyst  takes  notes  during  the  consultation,  not 
after  the  session  as  Freud  recommends,  the  subject  should  be 
assured  that  he  is  guarded  against  all  indiscretions.  If  too 
much  resistance  is  developed,  I give  the  subject  the  manuscript 
written  in  an  obsolete  stenographic  system  or  give  up  the  tak- 
ing of  notes.  The  diversion  of  the  attention  is  not  great  and 
further  I never  felt  the  strengthening  of  the  resistance. 
Therefore  I can  afterwards  check  up  my  work  more  closely  and 
have  it  tested  by  other  analysts.  For  the  beginner  and  sci- 
entific investigator,  I recommend  taking  notes,  for  the  prac- 


CONDITIONS  OF  THE  PSYCHOANALYSIS  495 


ticed  educator,  Freud ’s  method  * of  making  notes  in  the  even- 
ing following  the  analysis  and  writing  down  important  dream 
texts  after  the  analysis. 

4.  It  is  very  useful  to  give  the  pupil  a probationary  period 
during  which  it  may  be  determined  whether  he  is  a suitable 
case  for  analysis.! 

5.  The  patient  is  to  be  warned  against  impatience.  One 
should  never  promise  to  cure  in  a certain  time. 

6.  If  a fee  is  desired  for  the  psychoanalytic  treatment,  some- 
thing which  according  to  Freud’s  testimony, $ brings  with  itself 
essential  advantage  for  those  in  need  of  treatment,  it  should 
also  be  specified  that  appointments  which  are  not  kept  will 
be  charged  for.  The  pastor  customarily  declines  an  honor- 
arium, at  least  among  his  own  congregation  and  usually  else- 
where likewise.  That,  in  so  doing,  the  work  is  often  rendered 
more  difficult,  I must  admit. 

Not  much  dependence  can  be  placed  on  the  expectations 
brought  by  patients.  Pupils  with  greatest  confidence  often 
refuse  very  soon,  those  refractory  in  the  beginning,  are  often 
quickly  brought  around.  ||  Stekel  finds  that  individuals  who 
are  theoretically  well  prepared,  may  be  especially  disagree- 
able, since  they  gain  weapons  from  the  analysis  to  use  against 
disclosing  their  complexes.1)] 

2.  The  Collection  op  the  Conscious  Material 

If  one  perceives  that  no  results  are  to  be  obtained  from  a 
light  analysis  of  symptoms  and  that  the  conditions  are  right 
for  an  analysis  of  the  resistance  (see  below),  then  one  orients 
himself  with  the  patient  concerning  the  history  of  the  illness, 
something  which  usually  demands  several  hours.  One  informs 
himself  about  when  the  trouble  began  and  what  the  relations 
were  at  its  first  appearance.  In  particular,  one  notices  the 

* Freud,  Ratschlage.  Zbl.  II,  p.  485. 

t Freud,  Weitere  Ratschlage  zur  Technik  d.  Psa.  Internat.  Zsch. 
f.  med.  Psa.  I (1913),  p.  2. 

t Same,  p.  4 f. 

||  Same,  p.  3 f. 

II  Stekel,  Die  Ausgange  der  psa.  Kuren.  Zbl.  Ill,  p.  175. 


496 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


relation  to  the  parents  and  certain  parent-substitutes,  for  ex- 
ample, teachers,  and  any  erotic  complications  or  conflicts  with 
conscience. 

Even  now,  one  pays  attention  to  the  complex-indicators 
which  we  have  studied,  especially  the  physical  ones  (blushings, 
twitchings,  strikingly  soft  or  loud,  quick  or  slow  speech,  smil- 
ing upon  the  recounting  of  severe  suffering  (“La  belle  indif- 
ference”), symptomatic  movements,  etc).  Mental  stigmata, 
such  as  striking  discrepancies  (for  example  omission  of  the 
father,  of  a period  of  time)  or  leaps,  peculiar  joining  of 
thoughts,  grotesque  surmises  and  the  like,  are  carefully  noted. 
No  neurotic  will  report  his  affairs  well-ordered,  but  ever  criss- 
cross in  the  elaboration  of  the  anamnesis. 

In  the  beginning,  one  seldom  interrupts  the  speaker,  occa- 
sionally reminding  him  of  an  important  connection,  telling 
him  of  some  analogous  case  in  order  to  show  him  that  one 
understands  his  position  and  to  instil  confidence.  Stekel  con- 
siders the  following  a most  important  psychoanalytic  rule: 
“Use  the  first  hours  to  gain  the  patient’s  confidence  and 
esteem.  ’ ’ * 

Proceeding  from  the  clinical  history,  one  likes  to  make  a sur- 
vey of  the  life  history  in  which  special  attention  is  to  be  paid 
to  the  dates,  since  the  patient  can  seldom  relate  things  in  cor- 
rect chronological  order.  If  however,  a manifestation  is  of- 
fered for  analysis  early,  one  will  gladly  stop  in  passing  to 
weigh  it,  as  in  general,  the  advice  given  here  is  not  to  be  fol- 
lowed with  pedantic  strictness.  Every  psychoanalyst  has  his 
own  manner.  Still  I think  I have  given  not  unwelcome  and  in 
general  helpful  advice. 

3.  The  Overcoming  of  the  Resistance 

The  effort  which  we  set  in  motion  proceeds  to  the  overcoming 
of  various  forms  of  resistance.  The  fear  of  rendering  con- 
scious the  unconscious  material,  the  antipathy  for  the  analyst 
and  the  horror  for  the  problem  of  life  must  be  overcome. 
From  this  threefold  resistance,  there  follow  three  tasks : aboli- 

* Stekel,  Nerv.  Angstzustande,  p.  289 


OVERCOMING  OF  THE  RESISTANCE  497 


tion  of  the  amnesia,  elimination  of  the  negative  attitude,  puri- 
fication of  the  positive  transference  and  comprehension  of  the 
plan  of  life.*  Among  the  three  resistances  in  the  analysis, 
especial  care  is  to  he  devoted  to  the  second.  How  does  this 
resistance  express  itself  against  the  analyst? 

We  have  already  (472)  said  something  about  this.  One 
insignificant  but  diagnostically  important  symptom,  is  com- 
ing-too-late,  which,  according  to  general  experience,  almost 
always  betrays  resistance.  Perhaps  the  pupil  keeps  his  asso- 
ciations to  himself  and  veils  himself  in  deep  silence,  many 
times  under  pathological  compulsion,  or  he  rebels  with  im- 
measurable stubbornness  against  the  most  obvious  arguments 
of  the  analyst,  or  he  gets  mad  over  a senseless  hobby  which 
does  not  agree  with  the  rest  of  his  intelligence,  or  he  lies  will- 
fully, or  he  revokes  for  insignificant  reasons  that  which  he 
accepted  on  a basis  of  sufficient  proof,  or  he  produces  a vast 
quantity  of  manifestations  in  order  to  prevent  a thorough 
working  out  of  any  particular  one,  or  he  loses  himself  in  ordi- 
nary conversation,  or  he  gives  up  the  treatment.  He  likes 
to  try  to  torment  the  analyst,  in  whom,  be  sees  the  father  as 
Riklin  mentions. t 

If  the  attempt  to  conquer  the  resistance  is  unsuccessful,  the 
whole  analytic  effort  fails.  I am  not  at  all  surprised,  there- 
fore, that  some  opponents  of  psychoanalysis  to  whom  a few 
well-intentioned  but  falsely  begun  attempts  failed,  did  not 
attain  their  goal  and  poured  the  phials  of  their  wrath  upon 
Freud  and  his  investigation.  It  came  within  a hair  of  hap- 
pening to  one  of  our  most  brilliant  psychoanalysts : his  first 
patient,  whom  he  wished  to  treat  according  to  the  new  method, 
after  the  beginning  psychoanalyst  had  been  introduced  by  a 
professional  and  been  analyzed,  refused  to  speak  and  for  many 
hours  was  absolutely  speechless.  In  his  embarrassment,  the 
physician  turned  to  Freud  with  an  account  of  the  facts  in  the 

* Other  formulse  are:  elimination  of  infantilism  or  of  anachronism, 
overcoming  of  the  involution  of  the  libido  (turning-in  of  the  instinct) 
or  of  the  isolation  caused  by  repression  and  attachment,  bringing  out 
into  reality,  etc. 

| Riklin,  Aus  der  Analyse  einer  Zwangsneurose.  Jahrb.  II,  p.  247. 


498 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


case;  the  latter,  because  of  his  immense  experience,  could  see 
through  the  motive  of  the  resistance  and  sent  his  conclusions 
by  letter.  And  behold,  as  soon  as  the  physician  told  his  vis- 
itor the  motive  for  his  resistance,  the  invisible  lock  fell  from 
his  mouth,  whereas  all  previous  efforts  had  been  fruitless.  He 
who  has  seen  something  like  this  occur,  has  only  a mild  regret 
for  the  scorn  of  the  opponents  of  Freud’s  theory  of  the  re- 
sistance. 

The  fact  is,  that  years  of  experience  led  to  this  conclusion, 
to  neglect  in  severe  cases  the  symptom  and  direct  all  atten- 
tion to  the  resistance.*  If  this  resistance  is  broken,  the  cure 
easily  results.  The  psychoanalytic  treatment  has  therefore  in 
greatest  part  become  analysis  of  the  resistance. 

In  order  to  solve  the  resistance,  one  must  know  how  it  origin- 
ated. In  great  part,  it  arises  from  the  transference,  and  in- 
deed from  the  positive  as  well  as  the  negative.  Often,  an  iden- 
tification with  father  or  mother  has  occurred.  The  defiance 
which  applies  to  the  father,  the  fear  of  him,  the  disbelief  in 
him,  is  now  set  free.f  A special  cause  may  perhaps  contribute 
to  the  transference  which  cause,  it  may  be  possible  to  discover, 
or  the  whole  situation  may  even  be  disclosed.  It  is  possible  for 
the  mouth  to  serve  as  sexual  symbol  so  that  the  closing  of  the 
mouth  expresses  sexual  fear.  In  a case  of  which  I knew, 
silence  betrayed  the  wish  for  assurance  against  perverse  ac- 
tivity. It  may  also  happen  that  an  hysterical  patient  uncon- 
sciously sulks : ‘ ‘ The  mouth  serves  not  only  for  speaking  but 

also  for  kissing ; if  you  refuse  the  latter,  so  will  I refuse  the 
former.  ’ ’ { The  unconsciousness  of  most  motives  for  resist- 
ance is  to  be  borne  in  mind. 

In  no  case  should  the  educator  betray  that  the  resistance 
vexes  hirq.  Most  analytic  subjects  rejoice  consciously  or  un- 
consciously when  they  can  vex  the  father,  hence  when  they  can 
vex  the  analyst,  and  reckon,  as  Freud  wittily  remarks,  again 
and  again  according  to  the  saying  of  the  little  boy:  “It 

* Freud,  Die  zukiinft.  Chancen  der  psa.  Ther.  Zbl.  I,  p.  3. 

f Same,  p.  4. 

% Prof.  Freud  kindly  called  my  attention  to  this  motive. 


OVERCOMING  OF  THE  RESISTANCE  499 


would  serve  father  just  right  if  I got  sick  and  died.”  One 
calmly  goes  through  the  various  possibilities  until  the  barrier 
is  removed.  If  the  will  to  health  in  the  patient,  the  scientific 
interest  in  the  healthy  subject  of  analysis,  is  weak,  one  should 
defer  the  treatment  until  a more  favorable  time.  There  are 
lazy  neurotics  for  whom  one  would  like,  in  their  interest,  to 
allow  a worse  condition  in  their  suffering,  since  only  then  will 
they  really  become  well  and  become  ready  for  sacrifice.  It 
is  much  better  for  one  to  refuse  those  not  ready  for  analysis 
than  that  one  should  bother  one’s  self  with  them  for  a long 
time  in  vain.  The  overcoming  of  the  resistance  is  impossible 
in  catatonics  of  an  advanced  stage,  while  milder  introversion 
often  has  a favorable  outcome,  as  we  have  shown  in  many 
examples. 

Seldom  is  the  resistance  so  great  that  no  words  are  obtain- 
able. One  merely  pays  careful  attention  to  the  transference 
symptoms  and  says  to  himself  that  the  resistance  against  the 
analyst  and  also  against  the  outer  world  can  signify  only  the 
inner  resistance  against  the  real  comprehension  of  these  or 
another  inner  difficulty.  If  the  transference  symptom  is  not 
analyzed  at  once,  the  analysis  is  hopelessly  stranded. 

If  no  association  in  general  will  be  given,  this  failure  de- 
pends, according  to  Freud,  on  the  fact  that  the  patient  is 
occupying  himself  with  the  person  of  the  physician  or  some- 
thing belonging  to  him  and  he  should  simply  be  informed  of 
this  state  of  affairs.* 

That  which  we  have  said  concerning  the  initial  resistance, 
naturally  applies  also  to  the  barriers  developed  during  the 
course  of  the  later  analysis. 

As  a precaution,  one  should  be  very  conservative  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  treatment  about  giving  disagreeable  interpreta- 
tions or  other  communications.  One  first  creates  confidence 
(positive  transference),  then  one  allows  the  patient  to  gradu- 
ally find  the  state  of  affairs  for  himself,  otherwise,  a new 
flight  into  the  neurosis  is  easily  occasioned.! 

* Freud,  Zur  Dynamik  d.  Ubertragung.  Zbl.  II,  p.  168. 

f Freud,  U.  “wilde”  Psa.  Zbl.  I.  p.  94, 


CHAPTER  XX 


THE  MATERIAL  OF  THE  TREATMENT  AND  ITS 
ANALYTIC  HANDLING 

1.  Choice  op  Subject 

(a)  BY  THE  PATIENT 

Psychoanalysis  wishes  to  educate  to  freedom.  It  affords, 
even  during  its  prosecution,  far  more  freedom  than  any  other 
psychotherapeutic  method,  but  in  so  doing,  it  really  makes 
freedom  impose  severe  autonomous  demands.  On  a basis  of 
extended  observation,  psychoanalysis  has  advanced  to  the 
insight  that  the  pupil  has  to  choose  so  far  as  possible  the  con- 
versational material  which  is  utilized  in  analyzing  the  mani- 
festation. One  shows  him  how  unconscious  material  can  be 
reconstructed  out  of  all  possible  kinds  of  information.  If  he 
is  no  dreamer,  one  tells  him  how  important  dreams  are,  but  one 
is  very  careful  not  to  make  these  imperative.  “In  general,  one 
guards  against  disclosing  a particular  interest  for  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  dreams  or  awakening  in  the  patient  the  belief 
that  the  work  must  stand  still  if  he  brings  no  dreams.  Other- 
wise, one  runs  the  danger  of  joining  the  resistance  to  the  dream 
production  and  occasioning  a cessation  of  the  dreams.  ’ ’ * 

If  the  pupil  wishes  to  tell  of  a symptomatic  act,  perhaps  a 
mistake  in  speaking,  one  receives  it  with  interest.  If  he  wants 
to  report  from  his  youth,  one  listens  gladly.  But  if  he  leaves 
the  role  of  narrator  and  wishes  to  hear  the  view  of  the  analyst, 
one  will  be  cautious  and  test  exactly  how  far  one  may  enter 
into  this  discussion.  One  asks  one’s  self  whether  one  is  jus- 
tified in  taking  from  the  pupil  the  responsibility  for  a decision 
by  advice,  whether  one  already  understands  his  peculiarity 

•Freud,  D.  Handhabung  d.  Traumdeutung  i.  d.  Psa.  Zbl.  II,  p.  110. 

500 


CHOICE  OF  MATERIAL  IN  THE  ANALYSIS  501 


sufficiently,  whether  one  may  not  be  enticed  away  from  the 
analysis  by  questioning,  etc.  Rut  so  far  as  possible,  one  allows 
the  pupil  to  choose  the  subjects  of  conversation. 

(b)  the  analyst's  choice  of  matebial 

Where  the  pedagogue  finds  valuable  material  which  prom- 
ises an  interpretation,  he  lets  the  free  conversation  stop  imme- 
diately and  collects  associations  to  the  apperceived  object  in 
order  to  gain  an  explanation.  Of  this,  we  will  speak  in  a 
moment. 

He  exercises  an  influence  on  the  conversational  material 
when  it  threatens  to  become  superficial  chit-chat — but  not  at 
once,  for  even  the  flat  reactions  are  valuable  indicators  of  the 
complex.  We  simply  guard  against  the  resistance  which  would 
degrade  us  to  trifling. 

An  arbitrary  attack  is  made  upon  the  constellation  on  an 
idea  forming  a manifestation.  Otherwise  one  would  proceed 
from  hundreds  to  thousands,  remain  on  the  surface  and  lose 
the  interpretation.  Thus  one  asks  for  associations  to  such 
and  such  a part  of  the  manifestation,  to  such  and  such  an 
associated  word,  now  using  individual  words,  now  sentences, 
now  a chain  of  free  associations.  Now  one  asks  for  a crypto- 
lalia  or  a cryptogram,  now  one  desires  a report  on  the  previous 
course  of  the  conversations  etc.,  now  one  has  a phantasy  spun 
out,  in  short,  one  is  never  embarrassed  for  material  to  be 
analyzed. 

.2.  The  Provisional  Interpretation 

Rather,  the  beginner  may  be  driven  into  the  corner  by 
very  embarrassment  of  riches,  indeed  it  is  very  often  impossi- 
ble to  thoroughly  work  through  merely  the  material  offered  in 
excessive  fulness  by  the  patient  himself.  Should  one  give  up 
penetrating  into  the  depths  and  bestow  upon  all  manifestations 
an  interpretation  even  though  a superficial  one?  Or  should 
one  select  a little  entity,  perhaps  a dream,  and  explore  it  thor- 
oughly, perhaps  in  several  hours  of  interpretation? 

Freud  recommends:  “One  is  always  satisfied  with  the  re- 


502 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


suit  of  interpretation  which  is  to  be  gained  in  an  hour  and 
does  not  consider  it  a loss  that  one  has  not  completely  under- 
stood the  content  of  the  dream.  The  next  day  one  does  not 
continue  the  interpretation-work  as  matter  of  course  but  only 
when  one  notices  that  in  the  meantime,  nothing  else  has 
crowded  into  the  foreground  with  the  patient.  Thus,  one 
makes  it  a rule  always  to  take  that  which  first  comes  into  the 
patient’s  mind  and  no  exception  in  favor  of  an  uninter- 
rupted dream-interpretation.  If  new  dreams  have  been  pre- 
sented, one  turns  to  these  more  recent  productions  and  makes 
no  reproach  against  one’s  self  for  neglecting  the  older  ones. 
If  the  dreams  have  become  too  extensive  and  far  extended  one 
renounces  a priori  a complete  solution.”  * 

The  important  thing  in  the  dream  interpretation  is  always 
the  insight  into  the  instinctive  trend.  For  theoretical  ends, 
the  foregoing  formulations  naturally  do  not  apply.  In  the 
interest  of  science,  one  will  gladly  tarry  over  every  detail  and 
ferret  out  with  pleasure  the  wonderful  interweaving  of  mo- 
tives. In  order  to  assist  the  pupil  in  need  of  help,  we  shall 
so  constellate  him  according  to  the  possibilities  that  conscious- 
ness with  its  energies  of  will  may  touch  the  point  of  his  uncon- 
scious where  the  instinct  is  fixed.  Whether  the  parts  of  the 
manifestation  are  so  and  so  many  times  overdetermined, 
whether  the  goal  hinted  at  in  the  dream  occurs  once  or  more 
than  once,  whether  behind  the  first  .existing  fixation  of  instinct 
which  must  be  overcome,  still  deeper  ones  exist,  these  things 
are  not  now  the  chief  concern.  We  seize  first  that  which  is 
accessible.  Perhaps  it  turns  out  that  it  is  not  sufficient  and 
that  we  must  dig  deeper.  Patience ! Surely  this  deeper-hid- 
den material  will  crop  out. 

We  remember  that  in  general  no  dream  can  be  entirely  inter- 
preted {361),  indeed  that  certain  dreams  cannot  be  inter- 
preted at  all  with  certainty.  In  such  cases,  one  waits  for 
further  manifestations. 

Again  I call  attention  to  the  advice  that  one  should  let 
the  subject  of  analysis  find  as  much  as  possible  of  the  interpre- 

* Freud,  D.  Handhabg.  d.  Traumdeutung.  Zbl.  II,  p.  110. 


DISCUSSION  OF  SEXUAL  MATERIAL  503 


tation  for  himself.  One  cannot  expect  everything  of  him. 
There  is  only  one  Freud  and  it  was  a long  time  before  he 
could  come.  But  something  of  the  intellectual  pleasure  of  dis- 
covery should  be  granted  every  pupil. 

One  must  warn  against  the  expectation  of  coming  to  know 
from  one  interpretation  the  whole  situation  of  the  pupil  viewed 
from  all  sides.  If  one  manifestation,  for  example,  shows  no 
trace  of  homosexuality,  this  in  no  way  guarantees  that  such  a 
trace  will  not  appear  next  time.  Only  after  long  observation 
can  one  expect  to  know  all  sides  of  the  mental  make-up.  The 
individual  manifestation  reveals  only  the  complex  most  active 
at  the  moment. 

3.  The  Discussion  of  Sexual  Material 

Formerly,  I advised  analyzing  as  if  there  were  no  sexuality 
and  simply  to  wait  until  the  subject  of  analysis  recognized 
the  enemy  of  sexual  repression  himself  and  acknowledged  it  of 
his  own  accord.  To-day,  I am  less  timid.  Of  course  one 
should  not  frighten  the  pupil  by  informing  him  at  once  con- 
cerning his  gross,  often  perverse,  wishes.  But  one  should  also 
not  go  too  far  out  of  the  way  of  a lucid  interpretation.  Other- 
wise one  awakens  the  appearance  of  prudery  and  arouses 
resistances  on  which  the  analysis  may  be  stranded.  At  least 
when  one  notices  that  the  patient  perceives  the  state  of  affairs, 
it  is  absolutely  a duty  to  meet  him  in  helpful  manner  and 
spare  him  his  feeling  of  shame.  The  patient  perceives  much 
quicker  than  certain  opponents  lhat  the  discussion  of  sexual 
complexes  is  just  as  necessary  as  that  of  other  kinds.  It  is 
absolutely  absurd  to  declare  the  exploration  of  non-sexual 
dreams  and  phantasies  as  necessary  and  curative  but  to  reject 
the  analysis  of  sexual  material.  The  Catholic  confessional 
shows  more  wisdom  in  this  regard.  If  one  acts  timid  toward 
sexual  subjects,  one  does  only  injury,  while  by  frank  inter- 
pretation of  undoubted  sexual  material,  one  removes  a burden 
from  the  sufferer  and  renders  him  grateful.  He  is  glad  to 
speak  out  freely  concerning  these  things  to  a man  whom  he  can 
trust  and  to  be  able  to  obtain  instruction. 


504 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


In  this,  it  is  to  be  emphasized  that  it  is  never  a question 
of  introducing  new  phantasies  into  the  pupil  but  solely  one 
of  mastering  those  ideas  already  present  and  active  in  the 
unconscious  by  raising  them  into  consciousness. 

The  sound  tact  of  the  educator  who  is  inwardly  free,  afflicted 
neither  with  prudery  nor  with  frivolity,  will  certainly  find  the 
proper  position  in  this  matter. 

If  anyone  is  afraid  of  injuring  the  pupil  by  sexual  enlight- 
enment and  confession,  let  him  look  at  those  who,  under  the 
sway  of  their  complexes,  are  thrown  into  regular  abysses  of 
vice,  into  perversities  of  all  kinds  and  are  brought  by  the 
analysis  from  their  pathological  conduct  to  good  ways.  Some 
examples  we  have  given  in  this  book. 

I have  never  seen  bad  results  from  a sensible  sexual  analysis. 
Of  course  I consider  correct  the  fundamental  principle  that 
the  exploration  of  the  sexual  past  should  not  penetrate  deeper 
than  is  absolutely  necessary.  If  one  guards  against  the  sug- 
gestion that  the  cause  of  the  neurosis  lies  solely  in  the  infantile 
sexual  experiences  and  also  directs  the  analysis  toward  the 
obstacles  to  proper  activity  of  instinct  in  the  present,  then  the 
sexual  analysis  will  assume  a far  smaller  extent  than  at  the 
period  of  the  pure  cathartic  method  or  that  of  the  psycho- 
analysis which  expects  all  healing  from  abreaction. 

To  avoid  sexuality  intentionally,  however,  is  unkind  and 
testifies  to  a personal  fixation. 

4.  Order  in  the  Psychoanalysis 

One  would  expect  that  a confused  medley  would  result  when 
the  pupil  tells  of  his  manifestation  according  to  his  own  pleas- 
ure and  the  analyst  interprets  more  or  less  according  to  the 
time  at  hand.  To  external  appearances,  indeed,  such  a chaos 
does  exist.  But  as  the  tangled  associations,  like  the  brush 
strokes  of  the  caricaturist  suddenly  resolve  themselves  into  an 
organic  whole,  so  with  the  parts  of  the  analysis.  Afterwards, 
one  sees  a definite  arrangement  and  understands  how  one  dis- 
covery makes  the  next  one  possible,  one  interpretation  aids 
further  repressed  material  to  an  entrance  into  consciousness. 


COUNSEL  AND  COMMAND 


505 


Following  one  phase,  in  which  feminine  phantasies  develop 
as  determinants  of  a girl’s  hysteria,  there  may  perhaps  come 
another  in  which  masculine  phantasies  appear  as  motives. 
Then,  under  some  circumstances,  autoerotic  impulses  may 
appear  in  the  foreground.  There  results  possibly  an  attempt 
to  bring  up  once  more  the  first  phantasies  anew  if  a satisfying 
disposition  of  the  life-desire  has  not  been  attained,  etc. 

5.  Counsel  and  Command  in  the  Psychoanalysis 

We  teachers  who  are  compelled  to  trouble  our  pupils  with 
tasks,  hear  with  pleasure  that  all  that  kind  of  demands  ceases 
in  the  psychoanalysis.  It  accomplishes  nothing  to  have  the 
dreams  written  down  upon  awakening  in  order  to  snatch  them 
from  oblivion.  We  know  that  forgetting  also  proceeds  ac- 
cording to  law.  If  the  memory  disappears,  this  shows  that 
the  material  lurking  behind  it  is  not  ready  for  consciousness, 
the  associations  are  absent  and  nothing  is  gained  for  the  pupil.* 
The  practiced  analyst  probably  sees  many  a dream,  the  mean- 
ing of  which  he  knows,  but  when  he  gives  the  inexperienced 
patient  the  explanation  supported  by  experience,  the  latter 
will  find  the  explanation  violent  and  arbitrary ; he  is  not  con- 
vinced and  one  has  done  more  injury. 

Further,  meditation  over  certain  periods  of  life  has  no  yalue 
since  it  does  not  banish  the  resistance  which  comes  to  expres- 
sion in  the  amnesia  but  rather  strengthens  it. 

The  analyst  will  give  counsel  only  so  far  as  he  does  not 
disturb  the  self-decision.  He  aids  in  seeking  the  temporary 
dwelling  in  which  the  danger  of  unpleasant  difficulties  will  be 
as  small  as  possible.  He  assists  in  investigating  new  plans 
and  examining  whether  they  are  conditioned  on  complexes. 
He  calls  attention  to  the  unfavorable  effects  of  idleness  and 
when  desired,  not  before,  creates  opportunities  for  work,  in 
which  he  himself  does  not  give  or  control  the  work.  The 
analyst  should  not  be  a private  teacher  in  school  faculties  but 
rather,  under  certain  conditions,  work  hand  in  hand  with  an 

* Freud  Die  Handhabung.  Zbl.  II,  p.  488.  Abraham,  Int.  Ztschr.  f. 
med.  Psa.  I,  p.  194  f. 


506 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


understanding  pedagogue.  He  should  discover  the  internal 
and  external  resistances  but  not  say  whether  freedom  will  be 
gained  by  renunciation  or  conquest,  reduction  of  the  goal  or 
increased  effort.  If  the  patient  chooses  a useful  work  which 
teaches  him  to  taste  the  pleasure  of  real  endeavor,  the  analyst 
will  approve  of  it  but  be  moderate  with  praise  without  causing 
the  appearance  of  negative  transference  (suspicion  of  envy, 
severity,  etc.).  The  responsibility  is  always  to  be  left  to  the 
patient. 

He  is  warned  by  Freud  from  the  attempt  “of  turning  aside 
in  the  treatment  into  the  intellectual  field.”*  There  are 
problem-delvers  who  throw  themselves  with  ardor  upon  theories 
but  carefully  guard  their  own  fixation  of  instinct.  Every 
analyst  must  certainly  learn  to  understand  the  theory  thor- 
oughly and  it  is  good  if  he  has  a lively  interest  in  it.  But  mere 
reflection  over  one’s  own  person  only  injures.  Freud  allows 
the  patients  analytic  literature  only  unwillingly,  their  relatives 
none  at  all,  since  almost  always  the  resistance  is  only 
strengthened.!  The  chief  thing  is  that  the  pupil  should  learn 
to  understand  his  own  condition  in  the  analysis  and  be  in- 
clined to  do  away  with  the  injurious  part  of  it.  Then  he 
himself  will  give  the  necessary  advice. 

* Freud,  Ratschlage.  Zbl.  II,  p.  489. 

t Jung  recommends  to  a religiously  uncultivated  person  who  asks 
him  for  reading  during  the  analysis,  as  the  only  book,  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


THE  DURATION  AND  CONCLUSION  OF  THE 
PSYCHOANALYSIS 

1.  The  Duration 

The  reproach  is  often  made  against  the  psychoanalytic 
treatment  that  it  takes  an  enormous  amount  of  time.  We 
educators  will  be  lenient  with  this  fault  for  we  know  that  an 
orderly  education — and  such  an  one  is  psychoanalysis — is  not 
to  be  attained  at  a gallop. 

If  it  were  only  a question  of  the  elimination  of  one  or  an- 
other symptom  which  had  been  caused  by  accidental  ex- 
periences, then  rapid  cures  would  be  worth  striving  for.  Or 
if  one  has  vigorous,  able  pupils  who  really  know  already  the 
right  way,  for  whom  the  barriers  need  merely  be  pushed  aside, 
then  rapid  cures  can  occur,  very  often  with  definite  results. 
It  is  an  injustice  when  an  opponent  of  analysis  previously 
mentioned,  tells  to  all  the  uninformed  people,  after  he  has 
given  a caricature  of  the  method,  how  he  cured  a psychoneu- 
rosis in  a half  hour  (!)  and  continued:  “One  thinks  now 
the  patient  might  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  a psychoanalyst 
and  been  analyzed  for  two  or  three  years.”  This  neurologist 
must  know  perfectly  well  that  we  too  have  a multitude  of 
instantaneous  cures  to  show.  I have  reported  in  the  fore- 
going chapters  a number  of  that  kind  of  processes  which  now 
and  then  moreover  had  a highly  gratifying  moral  and  religious 
transformation  as  a result.  But  it  is  distorting  the  truth  to 
designate  such  results  as  the  customary  ones  and  it  would  be 
foolish  to  go  after  a speed  record.  A prominent  neurologist, 
who  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation  in  practicing  the  former 
methods,  Prof.  J.  J.  Putnam,  testifies  in  his  article,  “Per- 

507 


508 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


sonal  Experiences  with  Freud’s  Psychoanalytic  Method”: 
“It  is  often  asserted  that  the  results  of  the  psychoanalytic 
treatment  bear  no  relation  to  the  time  applied  to  the  same,  and 
in  this  assertion,  so  much  is  correct  as  that  the  method  in  its 
broadest  extent  is  applicable  neither  in  hospital  practice  nor 
with  a large  number  of  patients.  So  transforming  a re-educa- 
tion as  is  here  undertaken,  indubitably  requires  time.  . . . 
No  other  treatment  achieves  so  much  in  so  short  time.  ’ ’ * 

Thoroughness  and  constancy,  we  have  to  strive  for.  We 
would  not  only  banish  the  symptom  but  eliminate  the  far  more 
important  inner  need  and  set  free  a maximum  of  moral  energy 
and  joyous  health.  That  this  is  not  attainable  with  potions 
and  electrodes,  rest  in  bed  and  dietetics,  everyone  ought  to 
perceive.  Psychoanalysis  is  the  most  penetrating  method 
which  can  be  conceived  of.  It  is  not  the  final  goal.  It  is  like 
the  labor  of  plowing.  The  seed  must  follow.  The  field  itself 
must  decide  for  what  kind  of  seed  it  is  adapted.  Good  things 
take  time. 

Aschaffenburg  asserts  that  other  methods  do  accomplish  as 
much  in  the  same  time  as  psychoanalysis.  How  does  he  ex- 
plain the  fact  then  that  so  great  a number  of  patients,  who  were 
treated  for  years  according  to  other  methods  and  given  up  as 
incurable,  found  complete  health  through  psychoanalysis,  in- 
deed a new  life?  When  Freud,  exceptionally  of  course,  used 
three  and  four  years  in  analyses,  he  was  dealing  with  old 
cases  which  would  have  been  considered  a priori  incurable  by 
any  other  physician.  He  who  reads  how  pessimistically  Op- 
penheim  and  many  others  consider  certain  nervous  diseases 
and  compares  with  this  what  Freud  has  accomplished,  cannot 
refrain  from  astonishment. 

The  duration  of  the  psychoanalysis  depends  in  the  first  place 
upon  the  subject.  A symptom  which  appears  mild  may  be 
anchored  exceedingly  deep,  be  tremendously  much  overdeter- 
mined. Often  a whole  series  of  stigmata  yields  quicker  than 
a single  sign,  for  example,  a nervous  tic.  More  important 
than  the  number  of  determinants  is  the  degree  of  resistance, 

* Putnam,  Zbl.  I,  p.  535. 


NEED  OF  EDUCATIONAL  ANALYSIS  509 


the  desire  for  health,  the  readiness  to  bring  the  necessary- 
sacrifice  to  its  attainment. 

Because  of  the  resistance,  it  is  also  very  important  how  the 
person  of  the  physician  pleases  the  subject  of  the  analysis. 
A less  skillful  and  clever  analyst  often  arrives  at  his  goal  much 
quicker  than  his  superior  colleague  if  the  patient  in  question 
understands  the  former  better,  identifies  him  less  with  un- 
comfortable persons,  allows  his  transference  to  be  more  happily 
disposed  of.  Therefore,  it  is  often  quite  useful  to  change 
analysts  although  the  management  of  the  transference  is  mean- 
while quite  difficult. 

Further,  the  number  of  analytic  sessions  naturally  comes 
into  consideration.  Most  medical  psychoanalysts  devote  to 
their  patients  one  hour  daily  except  Sunday.  They  can  there- 
fore treat  far  fewer  patients  than  other  physicians  and  are 
compelled  to  charge  higher  for  their  consultations  than  the 
latter.  For  this  reason,  they  must  wish  for  the  elaboration  of 
their  work,  which  is  indeed  only  an  educational  one,  by  non- 
medical pedagogues  and  pastors.  The  need  is  great,  the  helpers 
few. 

We  educators  can  usually  see  the  patients  only  once  or  twice 
a week.  In  severe  eases,  where  the  pupil  is  suffering  and  wants 
to  unburden  himself  of  much  material,  we  must  exceptionally 
sacrifice  still  more  time.  In  consolation,  it  may  be  said  that 
in  two  successive  hours,  more  can  usually  be  attained  than  in 
two  separated  hours. 

Ordinarily,  the  duration  of  the  treatment  cannot  be  stated. 
The  majority  of  my  cases  were  relieved  in  from  two  to  three 
months,  thus  without  complete  analyses,  in  which  connection 
it  should  be  noted  that  I have  to  deal  in  general  with  milder 
maladies.  Some  patients  I kept  a year  or  longer  in  special 
pastoral  care.  This  time  seems  very  long.  But  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  countless  nervous  patients  have  to  suffer 
dreadfully  for  decades,  indeed  even  to  the  end  of  life,  although 
they  visit  one  neurologist  after  another,  one  sanitarium  after 
another.  Further,  there  ordinarily  occurs  very  soon  a decided 
amelioration  during  the  analytic  treatment.  Also,  the  costly 


510 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


nursing  in  a special  institution  is  here  dispensed  with. 
Finally,  the  cure  is  a fundamental  one  and  creates  a new, 
beneficent  attitude  toward  life.  The  deepest,  and  for  the 
prophylactic  instruction,  most  important  insight,  is  gained 
only  in  the  late  stages  of  the  analysis.  Kecovery  is  the  enemy 
of  deep  investigation.  Hence  we  shall  attempt  to  bring  health 
to  the  patient  as  quickly  as  possible  though  without  forcing. 

It  is  beyond  doubt  that  the  psychoanalytic  technique  will 
undergo  many  improvements  which  will  shorten  its  course.* 

If  the  subject  becomes  impatient,  one  shows  him  the  extent 
and  difficulty  of  the  task.  If  he  draws  back — which  by  sharp 
control  of  the  negative  transference  seldom  happens — one  lets 
him  go  and  does  not  seek  to  hold  him.  Ordinarily,  he  returns 
again  after  he  has  perceived  that  other  methods  leave  him  in  the 
lurch. 

2.  Conclusion  op  the  Pedanalysis 

Every  person  is  unfathomable.  The  psychoanalysis  always 
remains  therefore,  as  we  know,  relative.  Further,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  solve  artificially  all  complications  on  the  other 
side  of  consciousness.  If  a number  of  threads  are  cut  through, 
the  man  can  break  the  rest  by  his  own  strength.  No  one  thinks 
of  eliminating  all  complexes. 

An  analysis  may  then  be  considered  concluded  when  the 
following  three  conditions  are  fulfilled : 

1.  The  analysis  of  the  manifestations  can  show  no  more  in- 
jurious fixations  of  instinct.  Thus,  all  pathological  symptoms 
must  have  disappeared  for  they  are  all  the  expression  of  un- 
suitable fixation.  But  further  the  associations  given  to  normal 
tests  should  contain  no  crass  incestuous  wishes,  no  tendencies 
to  introversion,  no  ardent  infantile  desires.  The  anachronisms 
are  never  to  be  entirely  overcome  but  they  should  no  longer 
have  central  importance. 

2.  The  transference  must  have  subsided  to  a modest  amount. 
Of  course  the  discontinuance  of  the  analysis  sets  free  much 
kindly  rapport.  Still,  the  loss  becomes  unbearable  and  the 

* Freud,  D.  zuk.  Chancen.  Zbl.  I,  p.  3. 


CONCLUSION  OF  THE  PED ANALYSIS  511 


longing  distracting  when  the  inner  change  too  little  prepares 
the  ground  for  the  external  separation.  Some  analysts  desire 
that  they  become  entirely  neutral  to  their  patient.  I do  not 
consider  this  good.  The  self-dependence  of  the  analytic  sub- 
ject should  of  course  never  be  prejudiced  by  the  picture  of  the 
earlier  helper  in  need.  But  the  memory  of  a well-meaning 
person  belongs  to  the  precious  values  of  life  which  a normal 
individual  cannot  and  should  not  throw  overboard.  That  the 
analyzed  ones  show  themselves  ungrateful,  I have  very  seldom 
found.  Children  in  particular  who  have  been  analyzed,  al- 
ways showed  me  great  attachment  and  likewise  most  adults. 

3.  The  ethical  situation  must  be  clearly  recognized  and  the 
necessary  things  carried  out.  This  compensation  is  the  highest 
goal  of  the  psychoanalysis.  If  the  inner  harmony  is  estab- 
lished, in  execution  and  renunciation  to  the  moral  command 
and  the  individual  law  sufficiently  obeyed,  then  the  adaptation 
to  reality  becomes  suitable.  It  is  free  from  the  worrying, 
strength-destroying,  fevered  activity  of  the  complex-tormented 
neurotic  as  from  the  indolence  and  fatigue  of  his  oppositely 
influenced  companion  in  fate.  Thus  the  person  sufficiently 
analyzed,  experiences  with  Tasso : 

“I  am  healthy 

When  I can  devote  myself  to  my  work.”  * 

But  it  must  be  a free  active  work. 

The  previously  repressed  instincts  are  thus  made  serviceable 
to  the  conscious  will,  the  repression  of  instinct  is  replaced  by 
control  of  instinct. 

We  have  heard  already  (473)  that  an  analytic  patient  does 
not  wish  to  free  himself  sufficiently  from  his  mentor  or  fulfill 
his  life’s  duties  and  therefore  clings  to  his  symptom.  This 
shows  as  we  know  that  the  person  in  question  wishes  to  shirk 
his  life-problem.  In  such  a ease,  one  will  inexorably  break  off 
the  treatment  and  leave  the  further  education  to  life  which 
then  brings  the  cure  to  pass.  In  this  case,  the  patient  usually 
takes  his  revenge  by  not  thanking  the  artificial  help  but  his 


Goethe,  Tasso  V,  p.  2. 


512 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


“healthy  nature”  or  another  physician  for  the  cure.*  Never- 
theless, what  harm  does  it  do  ? A tactful  analyst  who  creates 
for  his  pupil  an  enrichment  of  the  ethical  content  of  life  be- 
sides health  in  the  medical  sense,  usually  receives  much  love 
and  gratitude. 

* Adler,  D.  nerv.  Charakter,  p.  77.  Stekel,  Die  Ausgange  der  psa. 
Kuren.  Zbl.  Ill,  p.  296. 


SECTION  4 


THE  PREREQUISITES  OF  THE  PSYCHOANALYSIS 
CHAPTER  XXII 

THE  PREREQUISITES  IN  THE  ANALYST 

From  well-informed  circles,  the  fear  has  already  been  ex- 
pressed that  psychoanalysis,  if  it  left  the  consultation-room  of 
the  physician,  might  be  misused  for  all  kinds  of  mischief. 
In  the  hands  of  improper  people,  as  social  sport,  tried  by 
frivolous  persons,  applied  by  lustful  companions  for  gratifica- 
tion of  impure  curiosity,  it  may  cause  all  kinds  of  misfortune. 
It  may  bring  moral  danger  to  healthy  people  and  great  increase 
of  suffering  to  the  sick  when  incompetent  persons,  in  mis- 
chievous presumption,  devote  themselves  to  the  interesting 
method. 

I consider  these  warnings,  even  though  they  were  spoken  by 
opponents  of  psychoanalysis,  as  appropriate  and  useful.  No 
one  acquainted  with  the  powerful  effects  which  the  method 
here  presented  calls  forth,  can  neglect  to  warn  earnestly 
against  its  careless  application.  He  who  would  venture  on 
the  practical  application  of  the  pedagogic  art  created  by  Freud 
may  do  so  only  in  an  earnest  and  exalted  responsibility.  He 
will  enter  upon  the  work  with  joy  if  he  feels  himself  equipped 
for  it  and  called  upon  to  do  it,  he  will  wander  with  pleasure 
through  the  virgin  world  which  is  opened  to  him  if  he  is 
equipped  with  the  necessary  tools.  But  nowhere  is  an  evil 
mind  so  deplorable  as  in  the  practice  of  a difficult,  laborious, 
pastoral  training  and  educational  art. 

Obviously  psychoanalysis  cannot  be  forbidden  by  legal  en- 
actment since  it  is  only  a refinement  of  methods  previously  used 

513 


514 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


and  is  delimited  as  little  as  the  suggestion  technique  by  indis- 
pensable rules.  It  is  different  with  hypnosis. 

So  much  the  more  will  the  representatives  of  a scientific 
and  penetrating  pedagogy  do  everything  to  protect  their 
method  from  misuse.  We  ask  therefore  what  are  the  requi- 
sites, without  which,  the  practice  of  psychoanalysis  is  not  right  ? 

1.  Theoretical  Demands 

He  who  wishes  to  practice  pedagogically  the  method  of  work 
founded  by  Freud  and  elaborated  in  some  particulars  by  his 
adherents,  must  know  the  results  of  the  previous,  enormously 
extensive  studies.  It  would  be  imprudent  to  ignore  the  work 
which  has  been  done.  He  who  would  do  so,  notwithstanding, 
would  soon  stand  before  enigmas,  for  the  solution  of  which  he 
would  need  the  keen  vision  recognized  on  all  sides  even  by 
opponents,  the  never-failing  tendency  and  acuity  of  a Freud. 
Even  the  experienced  analyst  often  sees  himself  opposed  by 
difficulties  which  hard  beset  him  and  he  is  always  grateful  to 
counsel  with  colleagues  who  have  already  encountered  the 
same  obstacles  and  fathomed  their  secrets.  Many  another 
therapeutist  takes  it  very  easy : he  ridicules  the  analysis,  puts 
the  patient  to  bed,  gives  hydrotherapy  or  electrical  treatment, 
gives  his  little  lecture  again — perhaps  for  the  two-hundredth 
time — on  the  illusory  character  of  the  illness,  cracks  the  whip 
again  and  calls  out  his  command,  and  goes  forth  with  the 
consciousness  of  the  honest  man  true  to  his  duty.  For  the 
analyst,  it  is  not  so  easy.  He  must  often  strain  his  hunting- 
sense  to  the  utmost.  I cannot  agree  at  all  with  those  who  find 
psychoanalysis  easy  when  it  is  once  learned.  I have  seen  very 
intelligent  people  stand  months  at  a time  in  not  a little  em- 
barrassment before  some  peculiar  secret  of  motivation.  The 
counsel  of  an  experienced  analyst  can  often  break  through  the 
thicket  at  a stroke. 

An  exact  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  technique  of  psycho- 
analysis is,  therefore,  an  unconditional  requisite.  How  this 
may  be  gained,  a later  chapter  will  explain. 

Still  more  important  than  a scientific  mind  is  a healthy 


PEDAGOGIC  CHARACTER 


515 


understanding  of  humanity  and  a good  intention.  These  alone 
help  to  the  knowledge  of  humanity  which  is  so  important.  An 
impractical  man  will  never  become  a skillful  psychoanalyst. 
With  women,  one  often  finds  particularly  sensitive  natures 
who  are  wonderfully  adapted  to  analysis.  In  the  exploration 
of  the  first  years  of  childhood,  they  are  without  doubt,  on  the 
whole,  superior  to  men. 

2.  Pedagogic  Character 

Psychoanalysis  is  not  a procedure  which  applies  purely  and 
exclusively  to  the  intellect.  It  is  psychoanalysis  which  con- 
vinces us  of  the  primacy  of  the  affectivity.  The  personality 
of  the  educator  is  at  least  as  important  as  in  any  other  peda- 
gogic practice,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  most  accom- 
plished students,  is  even  one  of  the  most  important  factors,  if 
not  the  most  important,  in  enticing  to  freedom  the  fast-fixed 
instinct  for  which  the  analysis  creates  latitude.  Much  de- 
pends, therefore,  on  the  character  of  the  analyst.  In  the 
mutual  work,  he  gives  much  even  where  he  wishes  to  conceal 
and  guard  against  it,  from  his  own  experience.  The  pupil 
detects  with  great  keenness  the  analyst’s  weaknesses  and  also 
his  moral  shortcomings.  In  the  unavoidable  exaggerations  of 
the  positive  transference,  the  analytic  subject  will  direct  his 
ethical  views  according  to  those  of  his  pastoral  adviser.  What 
a misfortune  may  happen  when  the  educator  is  a morally  un- 
sound man ! 

One  says,  to  be  sure,  that  the  patient  should  become  free 
entirely  by  his  own  strength,  by  self-education.  This  goal 
seems  well  worth  striving  for.  In  fact  and  truth,  no  analyst 
can  stand  so  far  in  the  background  that  he  can  be  dispensed 
with.  There  is  only  self -salvation  in  autoism,  for  example, 
Buddhism.  To  have  before  one  a healthy,  upright  man  who 
has  taken  hold  of  life  with  the  necessary  amount  of  courage 
and  love,  causes  no  decrease  in  self-determination  but  rather 
renders  the  personal  struggle  easier.  I think  that  every 
analyst,  whether  he  will  or  not,  must  determine  thus  or  so  by 
his  personality.  The  morally-lax  pedagogue  becomes  seducer, 


516 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


no  matter  how  zealously  he  cloaks”  himself  in  the  mantle  of 
virtue.  Hence  our  obvious  demand  on  the  character  of  the 
analyzing  educator. 

3.  Freedom  from  Complexes 

Freud  lays  gfeat  stress  on  the  point  that  the  unconscious 
of  the  analyst  contributes  much,  indeed  the  most,  in  his  cog- 
nitive process,  to  his  understanding.*  How  correct  he  is,  we 
see  in  the  adventures  which  every  analysit  occasionally  ex- 
periences. It  may  happen  to  him  that  he  does  not  see  through 
a connection,  does  not  understand  a phenomenon,  and  when 
he  tells  his  colleague  of  his  calamity,  he  provokes  a pleased 
smile  and  a solution  which  recalls  Columbus  and  the  egg.  In 
this  little  defeat,  he  sees  no  defect  of  intelligence,  as  little  as 
he  depreciates  the  other  when  the  latter  turns  to  him  on  similar 
occasions.  He  institutes  a little  autoanalysis  and  usually  finds 
where  he  should  really  have  found  the  connection  from  his 
experience  and  as  cause  of  his  mental  blindness,  a complex 
which  agreed  with  that  of  the  patient.  The  analyst  could  not 
see  the  latent  desire  of  the  other  because  it  was  also  his  own. 

Jung  told  me  of  a foreign  physician  who  treated  a sick 
colleague,  but  after  some  weeks  came  to  a standstill  and  in 
spite  of  all  insistence,  could  make  no  further  progress.  How- 
ever zealously  regression  and  transference  were  treated,  how- 
ever clearly  the  complexes  lay  at  hand,  it  did  not  occur  to  them 
to  insert  the  normal  development.  Jung  found  that  in  all 
dreams,  resistance  symbols  appeared:  the  patient  ran  out  of 
the  house  or  shirked  school.  This  allowed  the  wish  to  be 
determined  that  he  might  now  solve  a problem  autistically 
instead  of  actually  and  indeed  it  concerned  the  completion 
of  a neglected  examination.  And  why  had  the  colleague  been 
unable  to  recognize  this  fact  ? Because  he  himself  was  in  the 
same  position  as  his  patient. 

Freud  has  therefore  coined  the  dictum  that  the  analyst  can 
lead  his  subject  only  so  far  as  he  himself  has  gone:  “The 
physician  (educator)  can  tolerate  in  himself  no  resistances 

* Freud,  Ratschlage.  Zbl.  II,  p.  486. 


FREEDOM  FROM  COMPLEXES 


517 


which  withhold  from  his  consciousness  that  which  is  known  by 
his  unconscious,  otherwise  he  will  introduce  into  the  analysis 
a new  kind  of  selection  and  distortion  which  would  be  far  more 
injurious  than  that  occasioned  by  exertion  of  his  conscious 
attention.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  he  himself  be  an  approxi- 
mately normal  person,  one  should  much  more  impose  the  de- 
mand that  he  have  undergone  a psychoanalytic  purification  and 
acquired  knowledge  of  his  own  complexes  which  would  be 
likely  to  disturb  him  in  the  understanding  of  the  material  af- 
forded by  the  patient.  The  disqualifying  effect  of  such  per- 
sonal defects  cannot  be  doubted ; every  unsolved  repression  in 
the  physician  corresponds,  according  to  a happy  expression  of 
W.  Stekel,  to  a ‘blind  spot’  in  his  analytic  perception.”  * 

To  the  condition  of  having-been-analyzed,  there  should  be 
added  a happy  utilization  of  his  life-  and  love-forces.  Other- 
wise, the  educator  easily  incurs  negative  transferences  which 
disturb  objective  judgment,  render  impossible  the  regulation  of 
the  transference  and  introduce  uncertainty  into  the  treatment, 
indeed  a weak,  changeable  attitude.  An  analyst  who  believes 
himself  persecuted,  is  unhappy  in  love  or  morally  uncertain 
would  be  therefore  in  an  extremely  difficult  position  and  would 
do  much  better,  if  he  does  not  possess  extraordinary  self- 
control,  to  interrupt  his  analytic  work  until  his  personal  re- 
lations are  arranged. 

There  are  analysts  who  not  only  have  themselves  thoroughly 
analyzed  once  but  also  later  occasionally  have  this  done  a bit 
further  by  a colleague.  How  then  can  opponents  take  offense 
when  they  are  told  that  they  too  are  influenced  by  complexes? 
For  are  they  not  men  like  the  rest  of  us?  Is  there  a single 
person  who  has  not  his  strong  attachments  and  keeps  them 
so  far  that  he  will  not  be  analyzed  and  freed  ? And  who  would 
be  absolutely  free  from  complexes  ? 

•Freud,  Ratschl&ge.  Zbl.  II,  p.  487. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


THE  PREREQUISITES  IN  THE  SUBJECT  OF 
ANALYSIS 

We  have  pointed  out  repeatedly  that  psychoanalysis  is  not 
applicable  to  all  persons  and  to  all  psychoneurotic  phenomena. 
Before  one  begins  so  laborious  a work,  one  tests  carefully 
whether  it  offers  sufficient  chances. 

1.  Intelligence 

Superficial  analyses  can  also  be  carried  out  on  poorly  en- 
dowed individuals  in  case  no  strong  resistance  is  present. 
The  visionnaire  mentioned  on  page  36,  who  saw  her  neighbor 
as  an  angel,  was  very  deficient  in  intelligence;  further,  the 
girl  described  on  page  86,  who  suffered  from  paralysis  of  the 
arm,  weakness  in  the  leg  and  twitching  of  the  mouth,  was  of 
poor  talents  and  could  not  be  promoted  in  the  folk-school.  If 
the  analysis,  however,  must  penetrate  deeply,  under  strong 
resistance,  then  the  skill  of  the  most  able  pedagogues  should 
refuse  where  there  is  wanting  the  capacity  for  combination. 

Even  with  such  pupils,  a certain  result  is  possible.  I freed 
the  boy  described  on  page  159,  who  was  of  very  poor  mental 
endowment,  from  the  obsession  for  awakening  his  brother  by 
sticking  his  finger  in  the  brother’s  mouth  and  reduced  the 
number  of  attacks.  The  moral  insight  also  increased.  But 
complete  health  I did  not  attain.  To-day,  I perceive  that  I 
also  made  technical  errors : when  the  answers  were  not  given, 
I threatened  to  break  off  the  analysis  and  compelled  communi- 
cations. I think,  nevertheless,  that  even  without  those  errors, 
I would  not  have  arrived  at  the  goal. 

Unintelligent  individuals  are  treated  by  consolation  and 
admonition  with  suggestion — by  physicians,  with  hypnosis. 

518 


AGE  OF  SUBJECT  OF  ANALYSIS 


519 


On  the  other  hand,  uneducated  people  of  good  minds  are  gen- 
erally pleasant  to  analyze. 

2.  Age 

Clever  educators  can  analyze  children  of  three  to  five  years, 
as  Freud  and  Jung  have  shown.  From  their  observations,  one 
learns  to  comprehend  the  conduct  in  the  first  months  of  life. 
One  understands  that  not  only  erotic  experiences  but  also 
change  in  nourishment,  sleeping  quarters  and  other  processes 
presuppose  adaptations  for  which,  neurotically  predisposed 
children  are  not  always  ready. 

In  general  the  rule  is : One  analyzes  children  only  when  it 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  eliminate  their  fixation  of  instinct 
and  this  not  deeper  than  their  trouble  renders  inevitable. 

We  know  that  fixed  instinct  may  itself  also  under  certain 
circumstances  break  new  useful  channels.  That  which  power- 
fully preserves  the  complex  is  often  a groundless  fear,  a con- 
tinued unfavorable  influence  from  the  outside,  a persistent 
refractoriness  against  a duty  imposed  by  the  mental  make-up 
and  the  external  relations.  A quieting  word  of  consolation, 
the  righting  of  a tormenting  illusion,  an  awakening  word  of 
encouragement  which  raises  the  self-confidence,  the  expression 
of  recognition  and  love,  can  often  bring  about  a freeing  of  the 
imprisoned  instinct.  In  particular,  a pedagogically  proper 
religious  and  moral  instruction  may  contribute  as  much  to  the 
overcoming  of  neurotic  phenomena  as  a false,  gloomy,  threat- 
ening instruction  may  spoil.  The  chief  thing  is  that  the 
educator  see  through  the  phenomena  not  analyzed  and  know 
their  causes. 

Girls  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age  are  hard  to  treat 
in  the  analysis  since  their  eroticism  is  not  yet  purified.  Be- 
hind decorum,  there  often  lurks  boundless  desire  which  is  not 
yet  mindful  of  the  earnest  moral  responsibility  and  which  sub- 
mits to  sublimation  with  difficulty.  Still,  cures  in  this  age  are 
also  quite  frequent. 

The  upper  limit  of  age  when  people  may  be  analyzed,  Freud 
placed  formerly  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  fiftieth  year  of 


520 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


life,*  since  old  persons  are  no  longer  capable  of  being  educated. 
Further,  it  is  fearful  to  contemplate  that  one  had  been  made 
a fool  of  and  injured  by  illusions,  for  the  greatest  part  of  his 
life,  fearful  to  perceive  that  the  strength  for  suitable  reor- 
ganization of  life  is  lost.  Yet  in  mild  cases  in  old  people,  an- 
alyses may  be  done  and  cures  attained  as  I showed  in  one 
example  (noise  in  the  ears,  twitching  of  the  cheeks,  page  41). 

3.  Moral  Qualities 

Moral  defectives  are  analyzable  under  some  circumstances 
when  they  perceive  that  they  obtain  a gain  by  the  statement  of 
the  truth.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  painful  for  the  analyst  to 
see  a healed  rascal  go  forth  from  his  work,  now  more  dangerous 
for  the  community  than  when  his  illness  made  him  an  invalid. 
Fortunately,  the  diagnosis  of  moral  imbecility  (moral  insanity) 
may  be  made  with  great  certainty  before  the  psychoanalysis  is 
started.  I advise  pedagogues  having  individuals  who  have 
behind  them  a series  of  base  conduct,  to  obtain  a diagnosis 
from  a psychiatrist.  I have  never  found  that  a person  an- 
alyzed by  me  became  morally  worse.  On  the  other  hand,  I 
have  seen  in  one  young  man  that  after  the  (incompleted) 
analysis,  he  was  further  addicted  to  his  Don  Juanism.  A de- 
cided improvement  appeared  during  the  first  months  of  the 
treatment  when  a regular  chaos  of  hysterical  troubles,  con- 
vulsions, obsessional  acts,  phobias  and  hallucinations  was 
quickly  eliminated.  The  change  for  the  worse  began  when  I 
started  to  admonish  him  and  to  interest  him  in  useful  works, 
abstinence,  Sunday  School,  social  problems,  etc.  He  imme- 
diately put  me  in  the  father  role  and  resumed  his  immoral 
conduct.  Of  course  I did  not  at  that  time  know  the  psychology 
of  Don  Juanism  (329). 

Psychoanalysis  will  always  trace  back  to  the  original  condi- 
tion and  bring  into  application  the  educational  influences  work- 
ing upon  this.  Congenital  inferiority,  it  cannot  remove. 

I consider  the  psychoanalysis  impossible  in  mendacious  per- 
sons who  see  no  profit  in  their  cure.  Further,  with  all  those 

•Freud,  U.  Psychotherapie.  Kl.  Schr.  I,  p.  213. 


MORAL  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  ANALYSIS  521 


who  do  not  tell  falsehoods  at  all  but  raise  the  principle  of  the 
least  expenditure  of  effort  to  the  maximum  of  their  action. 
The  wife  who,  as  severe  sufferer,  is  coddled,  as  healthy  person 
is  troubled  with  burdensome  demands,  the  man  to  whom  pe- 
cuniary advantage  results  from  his  neurotic  incapacity  for 
work,  the  child  who  can  escape  his  duties  by  the  aid  of  a patho- 
logical symptom,  for  example,  headache,  the  lazy  student  who 
gets  out  of  an  examination  by  hysterical  defects,  the  son  with 
negative  attachment  to  the  father,  who  brings  the  latter  to 
despair  by  his  obsessional  acts — in  short  all  who  prefer  a 
pathological  phenomenon  to  a hard  moral  task  and  are  not 
capable  of  applying  their  minds  to  ethical  deeds,  all  these  are 
outside  of  consideration  for  analysis.  One  may  exert  himself 
ever  so  much  in  their  behalf,  they  will  not  be  saved.  Even  the 
most  good-natured  and  sympathetic  analyst  loses  all  interest 
when  he  has  to  diagnose  this  attitude  of  mind. 

In  order  not  to  be  misunderstood,  we  emphasize  again  that 
many  obsessional  liars,  kleptomaniacs,  work-fearers  and  anar- 
chists are  sacrifices  to  a complex-constellation  and  in  themselves 
are  people  of  high  ethical  value.  For  the  educator,  the  dis- 
tinction of  these  two  classes  of  moral  inferiority  is  of  immense 
importance. 

To  the  indispensable  moral  conditions  of  an  analysis,  I reckon 
a strong  will-to-health  and  the  readiness  to  eliminate  the  eth- 
ical defects  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  disturbance  of  health, 
even  though  great  and  painful  sacrifice  of  self-esteem,  renun- 
ciation of  sweet  anachronisms  and  the  assumption  of  new  bur- 
dens is  demanded.  Nietzsche  says  very  truly:  “To  make 
one’s  self  really  to  new  values,  that  is  the  most  fearful  change 
for  a lazy  and  conservative  spirit.”* 

The  analysis  makes  everyone  who  yields  to  it,  kind  toward 
the  failings  of  his  fellowmen.  But  it  cannot,  as  Freud  rightly 
warns,  lead  to  the  point  of  pushing  everything  which  makes 
inferior  persons  incapable  of  existence,  into  the  category  of 
disease.! 

•Nietzsche,  Zarathustra  I,  Die  drei  Verwandlungen. 

t Freud,  U.  Psychotherapie.  Kl.  Schr.  I,  p.  212. 


522 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


With  healthy  individuals,  scientific  interest  must  replace  the 
interest  in  health,  something  which  it  can  usually  do  only  in 
part.  The  analysis  of  healthy  people  is  therefore,  on  the  whole, 
more  difficult  than  that  of  patients. 

4.  Medical  Conditions 

Psychoanalysis  is  excluded  in  profound  confusion  and  excite- 
ment. It  is  dangerous  in  catatonics  since  under  some  circum- 
stances, the  timid  instinct  creeps  still  farther  inward  and  re- 
tires from  reality.  Of  course,  severe  cases  of  catatonia  have 
been  healed  by  analysis.*  Mild  introversions,  the  physician 
will  be  glad  to  trust  to  the  educator  skilled  in  analysis,  re- 
serving to  himself  nevertheless,  the  supervision  of  the  discharge 
and  assistance  in  the  treatment.  Fortunately,  one  can  assert 
definitely  that  manic-depressive  insanity  (circular  insanity) 
and  dementia  prsecox  (schizophrenia  according  to  Bleuler, 
paraphrenia  according  to  Freud)  have  been  cured  by  psycho- 
analysis. The  pedagogue  will  guard  himself  well,  however, 
against  treating  such  severe  cases  without  the  aid  of  a physi- 
cian. I do  not  consider  it  necessary  to  say  more  concerning 
this  subject  here,  for  the  educator,  as  already  noted,  has  to 
obtain  direct  instruction  from  the  physician  for  the  mental 
treatment  of  patients. 

5.  Analysis  of  Relatives  and  Autoanalysis 

The  personal  relations  between  analyst  and  subject  may  now 
be  briefly  mentioned.  A condition  of  being-related  always 
has  a highly  disturbing  influence  on  the  deeper  analysis.  The 
analyst’s  own  children,  so  far  as  they  are  accustomed  to  free 
conversation  with  their  parents,  proceed  most  easily,  as  Freud ’s 
splendid  child-analysis  shows,  the  association  material  for 
which  was  collected  by  the  father.!  Aside  from  this  instance, 
only  slight,  superficial  analyses  of  relatives  can  be  made. 

The  autoanalysis  comes  into  consideration  preeminently  for 
theoretic  purposes.  As  an  introduction  into  the  elements  of 

* A.  Muthmann,  Z.  Psychol,  u.  Ther.  neurot.  Symptome,  Halle,  1907. 

f Freud,  Analyse  der  Phobie  eines  5jahr.  Knaben.  Jahrb.  I,  pp.  1-109. 


LIMITS  OF  AUTOANALYSIS 


523 


the  dream-theory,  it  is  to  be  highly  recommended.  A deep 
autoanalysis  is  difficult  of  accomplishment.  Even  very  skilled 
and  clever  analysts,  in  need  of  analysis,  turn  to  a colleague. 
Mild  neurotic  symptoms,  as  migraine,  insomnia,  itching  of 
hemorrhoids,  nervous  diarrhea,  etc.,  may  of  course  often  be 
eliminated  by  autoanalysis,  but  severe  phenomena  certainly 
cannot  be  so  removed.  As  after-treatment  in  minor  troubles  or 
to  understand  one’s  own  actions  better,  slight  autoanalysis, 
which  does  not  degenerate  into  racking  one’s  brains,  is  in- 
dicated. 

To  pursue  the  autoanalysis  merely  as  a pastime  is  a mis- 
chievous undertaking.  Against  a sincere  attempt  on  the  part 
of  healthy  individuals,  there  is  no  objection.  They  may  even 
get  much  profit  from  it.  On  the  other  hand,  introverted  per- 
sons easily  suffer  injury,  it  may  even  be  conceived  that  out- 
breaks of  severe  neuroses  have  been  occasioned  by  autoanalyses. 
From  theoretical  and  practical  considerations,  therefore,  I 
would  advise  caution. 


SECTION  5 


THE  PRACTICE  OP  PEDANALYSIS 

CHAPTER  XXIV 
LEARNING  PEDANALYSIS 

This  book  thus  far  serves  to  introduce  the  reader  to  psycho- 
analysis. There  is  no  intention  of  replacing  the  study  of  the 
other  works  covering  our  field.  He  who  wishes  to  work  most 
effectively,  will  first  of  all  procure  Freud’s  works  which  may 
be  read  most  advantageously  in  the  order  of  their  appearance.* 
The  works  of  Freud  published  in  the  Jahrbuch,  Zentral- 
blatt  and  Imago  are  to  be  carefully  perused.  In  so  doing, 
one  should  bear  in  mind  this  circumstance:  Freud  is  ac- 
customed, in  the  later  editions  of  his  works,  to  leave  the  earlier 
conclusions  unchanged,  even  where  he  has  modified  them. 
Only  seldom  does  he  correct  earlier  errors  in  foot-notes.  The 
reader  is  thus  compelled  to  follow  closely  the  development 
of  psychoanalysis.  Only  after  a knowledge  of  the  whole  in- 
vestigation has  been  gained,  can  one  be  sure  of  knowing  the 
present  theory  of  the  great  scholar,  which  fortunately  still 
admits  of  much  development. 

* Only  Freud’s  lectures  on  psychoanalysis  are  to  be  read  first.  Be- 
sides Messmer’s  excellent  article,  “Die  Psychanalyse  und  ihre  Entwick- 
lung”  (Berner  Seminarblatter  1912,  parts  12-17)  Hitsclimann’s  “Freuds 
Neurosenlehre”  gives  the  best  orientation.  Unfortunately,  the  latter  is 
without  illustrative  cases  and  is  intended  principally  for  physicians. 
There  is  an  English  translation  of  Hitschmann  by  Payne,  published  by 
the  Journal  of  Nervous  and  Mental  Disease  in  its  Monograph  Series, 
N.  Y.  Another  recent  book  is  Leo  Kaplan’s  Grundziige  der  Psycho- 
analyse, Deuticke,  Leipzig  and  Vienna,  1914.  For  English  readers, 
there  are  also  Brill’s  book,  “Psychanalysis”  (N.  Y.),  and  Jones’  “Pa- 
pers on  Psychoanalysis”  (London  and  N.  Y.). 

524 


LEARNING  PSYCHOANALYSIS 


525 


The  other  investigations  are  referred  to  in  full  in  the  period- 
icals often  cited. 

Nevertheless,  I do  not  consider  it  correct  to  work  through 
too  much  literature  before  the  personal  analytic  attempt  is 
made.  “Even  the  physician,  who  has  learned  analysis  entirely 
from  books  without  having  submitted  himself  to  a thorough 
mental  analysis  and  having  collected  practical  experiences  from 
patients,  cannot  be  convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  patient ’s  pro- 
ductions; he  gains  at  most  a more  or  less  high  degree  of 
confidence,  which  may  temporarily  approximate  conviction 
very  closely,  behind  which,  however,  suppressed  doubt  ever 
lurks.  ’ ’ * 

Formerly,  the  critics  complained  that  Freud  presented  only 
assertions  and  no  observations.  The  complaint  was  ground- 
less, for  in  the  writings  attacked,  there  is  an  immense  amount 
of  observation  material  presented.  To  give  more,  were  super- 
fluous, for  he  who  falls  into  the  old  error  of  the  scholar  of  not 
wanting  to  see,  can  never  be  convinced  by  the  thousands  of 
corroborations  which  have  been  made  by  hundreds  of  followers 
of  Freud  or  Freud’s  theories.  Such  fugitives  from  the  facts 
have  only  themselves  to  blame  if  the  development  has  escaped 
them  and  left  them  in  the  rear. 

The  founder  of  psychoanalysis  wrote  for  such  as  have  eyes 
and  will  learn  by  testing  for  themselves.  The  objection  that 
one  does  not  know  how  this  work  is  to  be  performed,  is  in- 
comprehensible to  me.  I began  my  first  analyses  on  mv  own 
dreams  after  reading  the  little  brochure  of  Freud’s  “fiber 
den  Traum’’  (Concerning  the  Dream)  and  found,  to  my 
astonishment,  the  startling  statements  of  that  publication  in 
good  part  substantiated.  In  most  of  my  experiments,  I ob- 
tained an  interpretation,  superficial  but  nevertheless  compelling 
conviction.  The  testing  of  the  larger  “Traumdeutung”  (In- 
terpretation of  Dreams)  furnished  me  a deeper  understand- 
ing; I recognized  the  necessity  of  an  overinterpretation  of 
those  primitive  attempts  at  explanation.  Why  should  not 

* Ferenczi,  U.  passagere  Symptombildungen  wahrend  der  Analyse. 

Zbl.  II,  p.  588. 


526 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


others  also  accomplish  what  so  many  have  already  done? 

I would  advise  first  utilizing  the  association  scheme  of  Jung 
and  testing  it  in  the  manner  described  in  Chapter  XII,  4,  in 
order  to  investigate  the  reactions  obtained,  namely  the  com- 
plex-indicators. This  method  is  the  easiest  of  all  but  does  not 
lead  into  the  depths,  since  the  journey  into  the  land  of  the 
manifestation  is  always  interrupted  anew  by  each  new  stimulus 
word. 

When  one  has  learned  the  dream  theory,  one  begins  with  the 
intention  of  testing  by  the  analysis  one’s  own  dreams.  Even 
the  interpretation  of  the  uppermost  stratum  affords  not  a little 
satisfaction.  A supervision  by  an  experienced  psychoanalyst 
is  desirable,  since  he  can  point  out  many  refinements  and  dis- 
close many  deeper  connections. 

Further,  little  mistakes  iu  action,  of  striking  kind  (mistakes 
in  speech,  in  writing,  transpositions)  may  come  next.  Haunt- 
ing melodies  or  words  may  be  honored  with  a psychoanalytic 
investigation.  Arbitrary,  meaningless  words  or  flourishes  are 
to  be  attacked. 

Of  such  analyses  of  manifestations,  everyone  is  capable  who 
is  not  too  strongly  possessed  of  the  complex-devil. 

Further,  a slight  symptom-analysis  where  the  resistance  is 
quite  mild,  is  not  a great  task  when  one  is  satisfied  with 
therapeutic  results  and  knowledge  of  the  determinants  lying 
uppermost  in  consciousness. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  analysis  of  resistance  which  we  can- 
not avoid  in  severe  cases,  presupposes  experience  and  great 
inner  freedom.  The  most  careful  description  cannot  detail  the 
manifold  tricks  and  devices  of  which  one  can  make  use.  In 
order  to  apply  them,  it  is  well  if  one  has  himself  been  in  the 
role  of  subject  of  an  analysis. 

For  these  reasons,  it  is  to  be  desired  that  everyone  who  is 
going  into  difficult  analyses,  should  be  considerably  analyzed 
by  an  experienced  psychoanalyst.  Even  in  purely  scientific 
disciplines,  instruction  by  competent  teachers  is  considered  in- 
dispensable. How  much  more  is  this  requirement  demanded 
in  an  artistic  activity — and  psychoanalysis  is  in  great  part  an 


PHYSICIAN  WITH  EDUCATOR 


527 


artistic  mode  of  work.  There  are  certainly  excellent  auto- 
didaeticians  also  in  our  field,  but  in  general,  their  way  is  not 
to  be  recommended.  Most  of  them  stop  much  too  soon  and  do 
not  know  it,  but  their  pupils  suffer  the  injury.  They  project 
themselves  into  the  subjects  and  do  not  see  the  latter  ob- 
jectively. 

Especially  desirable  further  is  the  co-operation  of  analytic 
physicians  in  the  treatment  of  neurotic  individuals.  It  is  a 
mischievous  undertaking  to  begin  with  the  analysis  of  persons 
severely  ill.  Instructive  is  the  example  of  Aschaffenburg  who 
came  upon  a sexual  complex  in  a woman  suffering  from  ob- 
sessional washing  and  fear  of  touching  things,  but  in  the 
excitement  which  set  in,  instead  of  drawing  out  the  pathogenic 
material,  he  strictly  forbade  every  thought  of  sexual  experi- 
ences and  would  know  nothing  of  the  motives  for  the  anxiety 
for  speaking  of  the  intimate  secrets.*  With  even  a modest 
experience,  he  would  have  known  that  the  anxiety  expressed 
a repressed  wish  (compare  anxiety  for  burglars  in  the  garden, 
418,  for  sticking  one’s  self  in  the  eye,  160).  The  momentary 
excitement  of  the  patient  threw  him  into  consternation.  He 
acted  like  a surgeon  who,  having  cut  into  a swelling  and  found 
pus,  instead  of  drawing  it  off  and  washing  out  the  wound, 
strictly  forbade  taking  away  the  foul  stuff  and  sewed  up  the 
wound.  Such  procedures  are  reprehensible  torture.  But 
what  would  Aschaffenburg  say  to  a man  who  would  begin  his 
surgical  activity  with  an  extremely  severe  and  dangerous 
operation  ? Or  what  would  he  think  of  a pulmonary  specialist 
who  at  once  sent  a patient  away  from  a sanitarium  in  the 
mountains  because,  immediately  after  his  arrival,  febrile 
phenomena  appeared,  and  told  the  world  that  the  treatment 
in  the  mountains  was  to  blame  ? Our  opponent  has  only  shown, 
according  to  the  judgment  of  his  colleagues  versed  in  analysis, 
that  one  may  have  an  excellent  knowledge  of  old-time  psy- 
chology and  be  a useful,  conscious-psychologist  without  under- 
standing psychoanalysis  and  being  able  to  apply  it  correctly. 

* Aschaffenburg,  Die  neueren  Theorien  der  Hysteric.  Deutsche  med. 
Woehenschrift  1907,  No.  44. 


528 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


When,  however,  so  experienced  a psychiatrist  can  get  so  ex- 
cited over  the  momentary  effect  of  psychoanalysis,  how  much 
more  must  the  laity  beware  of  awakening  spirits  which  they 
cannot  banish ! 

Study,  analysis  of  quite  simple  manifestations  in  healthy 
persons,  particularly  in  one’s  own  self,  being  analyzed,  be- 
ginning with  quite  mild  cases,  this  seems  to  me  the  ideal  way. 
To  travel  this  way  is  to-day,  since  the  new  educational  method 
is  still  but  little  disseminated,  not  very  easy.  It  is  not  denied, 
of  course,  that  all  do  not  need  the  same  amount  of  introduction. 
I know  teachers  who  learned  to  understand  pupils  analytically 
by  study  alone,  and  by  knowledge  of  the  pathogenic  causes, 
without  psychoanalysis,  protected  the  patients  against  threat- 
ening new  disasters. 

As  remarked,  in  contrast  to  some  who  consider  psycho- 
analysis easy,*  I consider  it  a difficult  educational  method. 
Many  learn  it  quickly,  but  in  some  situations,  even  the  most 
talented  and  clever  analysts  are  thrown  into  embarrassment. 
For  my  part,  I want  also  to  warn  against  overestimating  the 
difficulties.  Even  with  modest  analytic  ability,  much  success- 
ful work  may  be  done,  while  the  most  difficult,  pathological 
cases,  we  leave  provisionally  to  the  physician. 

* Freud,  Kl.  Schr.  I,  pp.  202,  222 ; II,  p.  69. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


THE  DOMAIN  OF  THE  PEDANALYSIS 

Under  pedanalysis,  I understand  in  this  connection  an  edu- 
cational method  practiced  by  professional  pedagogues.  I am 
well  aware  that  this  definition  involves  a certain  arbitrariness. 
The  analysis  performed  by  a physician  on  a young  person  is 
also  a pedagogic  one.  Even  in  the  name,  the  difficulty  of 
separating  the  medical  analysis  from  the  professional  educa- 
tional analysis,  is  indicated. 

1.  The  Rights  op  the  Pedagogic  Psychoanalysis 
(a)  the  analysis  of  healthy  individuals 

The  treatment  of  the  healthy  pupil  is  solely  a matter  for  the 
pedagogue.  Pedagogy  has  to  decide  how  far  the  healthy  pupil 
may  and  should  be  analyzed.  We  have  already  expressed  the 
opinion  that  an  analysis  of  youthful  persons  is  only  to  be  un- 
dertaken when  necessary,  hence  the  healthy  youth  drops  out  of 
consideration.  On  the  other  hand,  a good  bit  of  psychoanalysis 
can  be  done  without  the  youth ’s  knowing  it.  The  clever  edu- 
cator can  guess  from  essays  and  symptomatic  acts,  hundreds  of 
important  background  processes  which  would  otherwise  remain 
hidden,  as  indeed  the  knowledge  of  humanity  in  general  gains 
an  unsuspected  enrichment  from  psychoanalysis. 

Little  superficial  analyses  for  the  purpose  of  theoretical 
demonstration  will  naturally  do  no  harm  although  it  may  be 
asked  how  far  one  may  go  in  this  direction.  It  would  be  bad, 
if,  for  instance,  pupils  of  a teachers’  seminary  were  to  receive 
a half-understanding  of  the  analysis  and  should  make  fool- 
hardy attempts  with  this  little  knowledge.  It  seems  obvious 

529 


530 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


to  me  that  the  new  educational  work  must  sometime  be  known 
to  every  teacher.  That  everyone  should  make  practical  use  of 
it,  is  not  my  intention. 

An  immense  field  of  work  is  opened  to  the  analyzing  educa- 
tion in  the  salvation  of  those  who  are  not  sick  in  the  medical 
sense,  yet  have  their  lives  disturbed  and  destroyed  as  a result 
of  continuing  unconscious  anachronisms.  To-day,  the  analytic 
neurologist  receives  many  of  this  class  of  persons.  They  treat 
with  wonderful  results  sons  who  behave  very  badly  at  home 
and  in  sehool,  daughters  who  suffer  from  fluctuating  erotic 
conditions  or  female  Don  Juanism,  unhappy  marriages,  etc., 
all  however,  only  when  no  severe  constitutional  defects  are 
present.  In  so  doing,  they  attain  much  better  results  than 
professional  educators  and  pastors  untrained  in  analysis,  since 
they  receive  into  their  treatment  almost  entirely  only  indi- 
viduals on  whom  the  forenamed  have  tried  their  skill.  Also, 
fatal  distortions  of  character,  religious  abnormalities,  ethical 
monstrosities  do  not  belong  so  much  in  the  keeping  of  the 
neurologist  and  psychiatrist  as  in  that  of  the  analytic  peda- 
gogue. 

Likewise  to  the  latter  belongs  the  noble  work  of  prophylaxis. 
But  how  can  one  rightly  prevent  disease  who  does  not  know  its 
causes  ? 

(b)  the  right  op  the  pedagogic  analysis  on  sick  children 

The  analytic  therapy  is,  as  is  admitted  on  all  sides,  a work 
of  education.  That  far,  the  medical  man  invades  the  field  of 
the  pedagogue.  The  treatment  of  the  sick,  however,  is  an 
affair  of  the  physician.  If  the  pedagogue  exercises  his  office 
on  sick  children,  it  may  be  asked,  whether  he  does  not  invade 
the  rights  of  another  profession. 

So  long  as  medicine  followed,  wholly  or  predominantly, 
physiological  ways,  a sharp  division  was  possible.  Should  the 
professional  educator,  today,  after  the  physician  himself  has 
become  pure  educator  for  a great  number  of  patients,  simply 
withdraw,  or  does  he  possess  the  right  also  to  treat  the  mental 
conflicts  when  a medically  pathological  trait  appears,  as  he  has 


RIGHTS  OF  PEDAGOGIC  ANALYSIS 


531 


these  same  processes  to  treat  exclusively,  when — I might  almost 
say  accidentally — no  pathological  sign  appears? 

I believe  that  everyone  is  agreed  in  the  view  that  physician 
and  educator  exist  for  the  sake  of  the  child,  not  the  child  for 
their  sake.  Consideration  for  the  welfare  of  the  child  may  thus 
be  the  supreme  test  for  the  decision  of  our  problem.  I will  not 
boast,  therefore,  that  historically,  psychotherapy  was  for  thou- 
sands of  years  an  affair  of  the  priests  and  other  educators 
before  the  medical  men  engaged  in  it. 

From  this  standpoint,  the  following  considerations  speak 
for  a pedagogic  analysis : 

1.  The  great  majority  of  physicians  is  not  so  familiar  with 
the  child  mind  as  the  teacher  and  pastor.  The  physician  as 
physician  studies  people  predominantly  as  physiologist,  there- 
with knowing  them  according  to  the  physical  side;  the  peda- 
gogue submerges  himself  early  and  late  in  the  child  mind  and 
thereby  adapts  himself  for  the  psychoanalysis,  on  a whole,  more 
easily  and  quickly  than  the  physician.  Of  course,  the  analytic 
neurologist  will  also  much  surpass  the  educator  as  student  of 
the  mind. 

2.  In  many  insignificant  pathological  symptoms,  there  is  a 
large  educational  work  to  be  performed.  Hence,  since  a tres- 
pass by  one  profession  upon  the  other  is  not  to  be  avoided,  the 
pedagogue  commits  far  less  usurpation  than  the  physician. 

3.  A considerable  percentage  of  all  pupils  in  country  and 
city  are  neurotics.  Admonitions,  punishments  and  promises 
are  rendered  of  no  account  by  the  tyranny  of  the  complexes, 
while  the  analysis,  by  setting  the  individual  free  from  these 
inhibiting  complexes,  can  work  transformations  in  the  life. 
Has  the  teacher  now  a right  to  dismiss  from  educational  con- 
sideration such  pupils,  who  are  often  the  most  valuable  ones, 
the  leaders  of  their  classes,  when,  for  example,  a little  stutter- 
ing or  writing  disturbance  is  exhibited? 

4.  The  analysis  of  healthy  individuals  is  best  learned  on 
patients,  because  these  show  many  phenomena  most  plainly 
and  require  the  deepest  exploration. 

5.  The  teacher  sees  the  neurosis  when  he  understands  it, 


532 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


earliest,  and  can  therefore  guard  most  efficiently  against  mis- 
fortune. He  will  also,  as  we  shall  soon  show,  direct  the  suf- 
ferer to  the  physician  best  adapted  for  handling  this  class  of 
cases.  When  the  teachers  understand  enough  of  pedagogic 
analysis,  the  physicians  will  receive  more  analytic  work 
through  them,  for  to-day,  much  too  few  patients  come  into 
medical  care  within  the  period  when  they  may  be  benefited. 
It  is  greatly  to  be  desired  that  teachers  should  consult  more 
with  the  physicians.  In  the  neglect  of  this  consultation,  much 
harm  is  done  by  pedagogic  ignorance. 

6.  The  power  of  the  physicians  could  never  suffice  to  elimi- 
nate the  vast  array  of  neurotic  disturbances.  In  particular, 
without  pedanalysis,  numerous  poor  children  lose  the  benefit 
of  appropriate  help,  since  the  physician,  for  reason  of  support 
of  self  and  family,  cannot  give  them  his  valuable  time  in  suf- 
ficient amount,  no  matter  how  sympathetic  he  may  be. 

2.  The  Bounds  op  the  Pedanalysis 

The  danger  and  foolishness  of  a “wild”  pedagogic  analysis 
has  been  pointed  out  many  times.  I emphasize  again  the  most 
important  points : 

1.  The  educator  is  often  unable  to  tell  whether  a psychogenic 
or  physiogenic  disturbance  is  present.  Even  a clever  physician 
is  very  often  compelled  to  go  to  the  specialists  for  a diagnosis. 
A pedagogue,  who,  for  example,  would  drive  away  neuralgic 
pains,  might  easily  consider  every  neuralgia  as  hysteria  and 
apply  the  analysis  in  unwise  manner.  Now,  to  be  sure,  this 
work  can  do  no  harm  directly,  but  under  some  circumstances,  it 
might  consume  time  within  which,  another  treatment,  for  ex- 
ample, surgical,  might  be  applied  with  success.* 

2.  Further,  the  pedagogue  cannot  diagnose  mental  anomalies 
sufficiently  well.  Often  he  does  not  know  whether  hysteria  or 
obsessional  neurosis,  catatonia  or  some  other  beginning  psy- 
chosis is  present.  The  suicide  of  a patient  will  be  charged  to 
him  while  the  physician  is  excused  when  it  happens  to  him. 

* Stekel,  Zur  Differentialdiagnose  organischer  u.  psychogener  Erkran- 
kimgen.  Zb  1.  I,  p.  45  ff. 


PEDAGOGIC  TREATMENT  OF  SICK 


533 


Further,  the  psychiatrist  recognizes  changes  for  the  worse  in 
mental  disease  earlier  than  the  teacher. 

3.  The  Fundamental  Characteristics  of  the  Pedagogic 
Treatment  of  the  Sick 

1.  In  all  pathological  cases  which  are  not  insignificant 
(analogous  to  the  minor  surgery  of  the  barber),  the  pedagogue 
obtains  the  diagnosis  from  an  analytic  physician  wherever 
possible  and  has  him  authorize  the  educational  work.  Danger- 
ous cases,  he  will  gladly  renounce. 

2.  In  the  further  course  of  the  analysis,  he  will  keep  in  touch 
with  the  physician  where  it  is  necessary,  and  in  case  of  need, 
obtain  his  advice. 

3.  The  analyzing  educator,  in  his  work  on  patients,  never 
considers  himself  as  rival  of  the  experienced  physician  but  al- 
ways as  pupil,  helper  and  co-worker. 

If  the  educator  adheres  to  these  fundamental  principles,  he 
has  good  right  to  be  recognized  in  his  analytic  work,  not  as  lay- 
man but  as  professional.  To  this  end,  not  only  his  office  as  pro- 
fessional educator  aids  him,  but  also  his  scientific  training. 
It  is  beyond  question  that  the  psychoanalytic  investigation 
and  the  elaboration  of  its  technique  has  much  of  value  to  expect 
from  keen-sighted  educators  and  no  physician  will  hesitate  to 
accept  this  service  gratefully. 

Our  experience  agrees  fully  with  the  expressions  which 
Prof.  Freud  has  contributed  to  this  book.  Aside  from  him, 
there  have  spoken  concerning  this  circumstance  only  phy- 
sicians who  understand  nothing  or  almost  nothing  of  psycho- 
analysis. That  they  are  indignant  when  someone  else  does 
something  which  was  denied  to  them,  will  neither  surprise  nor 
disturb  us.  A real  professional,  Riklin,  expresses  himself 
thus:  “Obviously,  we  must  greet  the  collaboration  of  philolog- 
ists, pedagogues  and  others  with  joy.  "We  need  them  and  have 
the  greatest  stimulus  to  expect  from  them.  For  psycho- 
analysis can  never  be  limited  to  pathology.  Further,  it  is 
very  desirable  that  the  educated  world  should  acquire  psycho- 
analytic knowledge.  From  the  strictly  medical  standpoint, 


534 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


much  is  to  be  expected  from  this  collaboration  and  a restriction 
of  the  neuroses  in  particular.  The  principle  of  the  necessary 
liberation  from  the  parents,  the  knowledge  of  the  own  per- 
sonality, the  conditions  of  marital  competence,  etc.,  must  have 
an  unconditional  mitigating  influence.  Besides  a prophylactic 
result,  a therapeutic  one  must  also  be  present.  It  will  be  less 
possible  for  the  conflicts  to  hide  behind  the  poor  masks  of  the 
neurosis  and  happen  less  often  that  a patient  can  terrorize  his 
whole  environment.  A number  of  conflicts,  for  example,  those 
of  puberty,  will  be  judged  quite  differently  and  be  led  to 
rational  solutions. 

Concerning  the  practice  of  analysis  by  non-physicians  (of 
the  physicians  who  should  not  do  analysis,  I have  already 
spoken)  the  following  standpoint  may  well  be  taken:  There 
are  non-physicians  of  great  psychological  acumen  and  com- 
plete comprehension  of  psychoanalytic  questions  whose  col- 
laboration we  very  much  need:  in  the  assistance  of  the  phy- 
sician, in  the  education  of  neurotic  children,  etc.  For  the 
sake  of  order,  we  must  wish  that  the  patients  treated  by  these 
non-physicians  should  have  the  diagnosis  passed  on  by  a phy- 
sician schooled  in  analysis  and  that  the  latter  should  keep  in 
touch  with  the  course  of  the  analytic  treatment  and  help  bear 
the  responsibility.  Against  this  formulation,  it  will  be  dif- 
ficult to  find  an  important  objection.- 

To  declaim  against  the  application  of  analytic  knowledge  in 
pedagogy  and  to  want  to  forbid  the  pedagogue  from  that 
kind  of  conference  with  his  pupils,  seems  to  me  unreason- 
able.”* 

* Riklin,  U.  Psa.  Corr.  bl.  f.  Schweizer  Arzte  1912,  No.  27,  1020  f. 


CONCLUSION 


THE  RESULTS  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 

CHAPTER  XXVI 
THE  PRACTICAL  BENEFITS 

Two  enemies  lie  in  wait  for  every  powerful  new  move- 
ment: the  over-valuation  of  its  adherents  and  the  under- 
valuation of  its  opponents.  Psychoanalysis  has  encountered 
both  in  surprising  degree.  It  afforded  its  adherents  a joyous 
enthusiasm,  which  meanwhile  found  a rather  exuberant  ex- 
pression and  irritated  the  opponents  unnecessarily.  To  the 
writings  of  this  class,  belong  my  own  first  works,  in  which, 
from  joy  over  unexpected  practical  results  and  scientific  dis- 
coveries, I struck  a temporarily  injudicious  and  over-affective 
tone.  The  greatest  error  in  this  was  that  I,  looking  through 
rose-colored  glasses,  estimated  the  practical  difficulties  and 
theoretical  mysteries  too  low  and  emphasized  them  too  little; 
Psychoanalysis  is  to-day,  and  in  important  points,  will  he  for 
a long  time  yet,  in  the  stage  of  testing  and  proving.  I believe 
that  we  psychoanalysts  should  have  learned  much  more  from 
the  foresight  and  modest  reserve  of  Freud.  Perhaps  some 
of  us  sought  unconsciously  from  praise  for  our  work,  a com- 
pensation for  the  immeasurably  violent  attacks  on  our  intel- 
lectual and  even  moral  qualities  to  which  we  were  exposed. 

To-day  they  have  become  calmer  on  either  side.  Far  less 
often  than  formerly,  does  the  polemic  assume  an  improper 
tone.  There  are  even  one-time  opponents  who  are  beginning 
to  test  whether  Freud  may  not  in  the  end  be  right.  Bruno 
Saaler  has  just  published  an  hysteria-analysis  which  purifies 
itself  most  carefully  from  having  proceeded  from  the  Freudian 

535 


536 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


technique.  Against  the  latter,  Saaler  even  protests  that  it  esti- 
mates the  “resistances”  arbitrarily.  Nevertheless,  the  author 
attempts  to  apply  the  theory  of  psychoanalysis  to  a case  of 
hysteria,  and  behold,  he  finds  that  Freud ’s  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  explanation  are  entirely  substantiated  and  light 
thrown  into  great  darkness.  Thus,  he  comes,  plainly  in  spite 
of  himself,  to  the  confession  “that  for  the  understanding  of 
certain  hysterical  maladies,  the  Freudian  theory  is  in  fact  in- 
dispensable. 5 ’ * The  student  will  wonder  how  Freud ’s  ‘ ‘ arbi- 
trary” methods  can  give  such  correct  results  that  even  an  ap- 
parently little  inclined  critic  must  feel  himself  compelled  to 
acknowledge  their  validity.  He  will  wonder  further  that  a 
man  like  Saaler  could  ignore  the  therapeutic  experiences  of 
physicians  who  have  analyzed  for  decades  and  choose  pro- 
cedures which  are  in  contradiction  to  his  theoretic  statement — 
I mention  only  the  frequent  physical  (also  gynecological)  in- 
vestigations and  daily  incidents  which  must  influence  the 
sexual  life  of  the  patients  unfavorably.  The  psychoanalyst 
can  be  satisfied  with  Saaler ’s  results.  We  all  calculated  ex- 
actly like  him  and  would  to-day  be  satisfied  with  this  cor- 
rect but  superficial  explanation  if  we  had  learned  nothing  in  the 
last  few  years.  What  we  are  exposed  to  in  the  work  of  the 
newly  arrived  analyst,  disappears  nevertheless  beside  the  great 
service  of  the  author,  in  whom  there  is  finally  given  us  an  in- 
vestigator who  has  undertaken  the  venture  of  looking  the  facts 
in  the  face. 

That  which  Freud  and  his  adherents  have  to  regret  to-day  is 
not  the  contempt  for  the  individual — very  seldom  is  the  origi- 
nator of  a mental  movement  so  furiously  attacked  by  the 
authorities  in  wrath  and  excommunication,  so  highly  esteemed 
personally,  even  by  opponents,  as  Freud.  We  complain  rather 
of  the  contempt  for  the  facts,  and  find  in  this,  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  bitter  saying  of  the  gifted  Anatole  France : ‘ ‘ Les 
savants  ne  sont  pas  curieux”  (Jung).  Still,  the  signs 
multiply  that  at  least  those  of  the  investigators  still  capable  of 

* D.  Saaler,  Eine  Hysterie- Analyse  und  ihre  Lehren.  Allg.  Zsehr.  f. 
Psychiatrie  u.  Psychisch-geriehtl.  Medizin,  LXIX  (1912)  p.  866. 


BENEFITS  FROM  PSYCHOANALYSIS  537 


learning,  are  freeing  themselves  from  the  previous  ontophobia. 
I therefore  consider  an  agreement  with  a part  of  the  opposition 
as  imminent. 

My  explanations,  free  from  emotional  restriction,  may  there- 
fore state  openly  what  education  has  to  expect  from  psycho- 
analysis and  its  never  absent  synthetic  complement. 

1.  The  Cure  op  the  Subjects  op  Education  Who  Deviate 
From  the  Normal 

A considerable  number  of  pupils  with  marked  pathological 
symptoms  have  crossed  the  preceding  pages  of  this  book. 
Since  I have  been  engaged  in  analytic  pedagogy,  I have  been 
filled  with  astonishment  at  the  enofmous  percentage  of  neuro- 
tics present  in  all  school  classes  and  of  these,  indeed,  neurotics 
who  are  in  need  of  analysis.  I shall  give  only  a few  groups. 

A.  PHYSICAL  DEFECTS 

Bed-wetting,  stuttering,  disturbances  of  writing,  twitchings, 
pains  in  the  head  and  the  stomach,  neuralgia,  intestinal 
troubles,  skin  eruptions.  We  remember  that  all  of  these  dis- 
turbances can  also  be  caused  by  physiological  conditions. 

Of  the  legion  of  atypical  disturbances,  I shall  not  speak 
further.  It  is  impossible  to  give  all  forms  of  hysterical 
maladies  since  their  number  is  unlimited. 

B.  PSYCHIC  DISTURBANCES 

In  this  field,  it  is  more  venturesome  than  in  that  of  the 
organic,  to  lay  down  any  boundary  between  healthy  and  sick. 
The  separation  is  closely  dependent  on  subjective  impression. 

Very  frequent  abnormalities  which  the  teacher  meets,  are 
anxiety  and  obsessional  phenomena.  Many  pupils  are  path- 
ologically afraid  when  they  are  called  upon,  or  have  to  recite 
something.  Many  betray  their  anxiety  condition  by  no  ges- 
tures and  are  accordingly  considered  stupid  or  lazy.  In  a 
considerable  number  of  my  cases  of  this  class,  an  easily  recog- 
nizable transposition  and  identification  was  present:  the  fear 
of  the  father,  especially  where  he  had  interfered  brusquely  in 


538 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


the  love-life  of  his  son,  was  transferred  upon  the  teacher  or  the 
anxiety  caused  by  damming  up  of  eroticism  utilized  the  situa- 
tion of  a mild  fear  to  manifest  itself  by  immense  accretions  of 
affect.  The  examination-anxiety  was  repeatedly  deciphered 
as  repressed  wish  for  verification  of  potency ; I myself  analyzed 
only  examination-dreams,  which  forced  this  explanation  upon 
me.  To  the  anxiety  phenomena,  often  belong,  as  we  know,  also 
stuttering  and  writer’s  cramp. 

Among  frequent  obsessions,  I mention  stereotyped  gestures, 
ceremonials  in  walking  on  the  paving  stones  (touching  or 
avoiding  the  dividing  line  between  two  stones),  counting  up 
to  certain  numbers  in  marching,  division  of  paving  stones  into 
so  and  so  many  steps,  obtaining  oracles,  pondering  over  waking- 
phantasies,  elaboration  of  secret  speech  or  writing,  senseless 
habits  of  writing  (flourishes,  shading  of  certain  loops),  laugh- 
ing upon  occasion  of  serious  remarks,  obsessional  washing, 
agoraphobia  and  claustrophobia. 

I stop  with  these  typical  obsessions  which  were  accompanied 
by  more  individual  variations.  It  is  unbelievable  how  many 
obsessional  phenomena  are  present,  even  among  normal  indi- 
viduals. There  are  few  pupils  who  do  not  show  a number  of 
such  phenomena  springing  from  unconscious  trains  of  thought. 
Usually,  the  will  can  suppress  them,  and  although  the  atten- 
tion neglects  them,  nevertheless,  the  stigmata  caused  by  them 
keep  cropping  out. 

The  educator  can  draw  very  important  conclusions  from 
the  observation  of  such  obsessional  symptoms. 

The  observations  of  abulia  (deficiency  of  will)  are  impor- 
tant. They  proceed  from  the  circumstance  that  the  youth  is 
overwhelmed  by  a conscious  or  unconscious  motive.  One  of 
my  pupils  suffered  from  bitter  reproaches  against  masturba- 
tion which  was  practiced,  on  the  average,  every  five  weeks.  He 
said  to  me : ‘ ‘ Since  I cannot  stop  that  habit,  I am  a person 
without  will.  ’ ’ Analysis  was  superfluous  in  this  case. 

Of  all  educational  problems  which  demand  our  analysis,  per- 
haps the  one  most  frequently  encountered  is  the  withdrawal 
of  love  from  persons  and  objects.  This  condition  involves 


BENEFITS  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS 


539 


an  introversion,  which,  in  severe  cases,  leads  to  mental  dis- 
ease (catatonia,  a form  of  dementia  prascox).  Milder  intro- 
versions belong  to  the  tasks  of  the  analyzing  pedagogue  which 
yield  most  gratitude.  An  immense  number  of  pupils  suffer 
from  the  condition  of  their  bridges  to  their  fellowmen  being 
broken;  hence  they  fall  into  melancholia  and  distaste  for 
life,  indeed  into  danger  of  suicide.  By  the  aid  of  transfer- 
ence and  the  overcoming  of  the  frequently  complex-condi- 
tioned, illusory  denial  of  the  demands  of  life,  we  can  success- 
fully turn  the  instinct  which  is  self-enveloping  and  depending 
on  infantile  fixation,  to  useful  objects.  This  setting-free  of 
love  can  often  give  a life  an  entirely  new,  highly  pleasing  turn 
and  save  a soul.  Many  an  incipient  Hamlet  can  be  saved  from 
catatonia. 

In  this  connection,  the  numerous  persons  who  are  tired  of 
life  should  be  mentioned;  these  are  most  suitable  cases  for 
analysis. 

Further,  the  undecided  individuals  who  can  bring  them- 
selves to  no  decisive  action,  for  example,  choosing  a profession, 
offer  good  chances  for  analysis.  Usually,  these  persons  are 
chained  by  complexes ; for  them,  an  image  in  the  unconscious 
locks  the  entrance  to  the  life-work. 

How  strongly  the  intellectual  performances  often  depend  on 
complex-factors,  Alfons  Maeder  and  Otto  Mensendieck  have 
first  shown  * in  two  excellent  little  articles.  Even  the  best 
pupil  does  nothing  when  entanglement  of  the  unconscious 
binds  him  in  chains.  Not  only  is  an  immense  quantity  of 
mental  energy  lost  in  the  autistic  elaboration  of  the  material 
thereby  afforded,  but  there  is  also  the  need  of  working  out  his 
complexes,  for  constant  remolding  and  distortion  of  reality. 
By  the  analysis,  tired  and  uninterested  pupils,  who  are  con- 
sidered lazy,  but  are  in  reality  inhibited  by  fixations  of  instinct, 
are  transformed  into  useful,  studious  pupils  who  take  pleas- 
ure in  their  work.  One  cannot  influence  such  persons  by  pun- 

* Alfons  Maeder  and  Otto  Mensendieck,  Diskussionvoten  in  der 
ztirich.  psychanalyt.  Vereinigung  ii.  “Psychoanalyse  u.  Piidagogik”  1912. 
Berner  Seminarbl&tter  VI,  pp.  303-309. 


540 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


ishment  and  threats  for  one  merely  increases  the  transposition 
with  the  father.  Further,  transfer  to  an  educational  home  of 
freer  atmosphere  does  not  solve  the  complications  of  their 
minds  even  when  it  effects  the  removal  from  the  parents  so 
much  to  be  desired. 

The  most  important  educational  problems  are  the  moral 
ones.  We  saw  that  psychoanalysis  in  the  treatment  of  moral 
deficiencies  solved  many  problems  which  resisted  the  tradi- 
tional methods.  The  analysis  cannot  make  a youth  who  is 
constitutionally  defective,  good.  An  ethical  imbecile  is  also 
not  to  be  improved  by  it.  But  among  the  sons  and  daughters 
who  have  turned  out  badly,  there  is  an  immense  number  who 
are  only  a sacrifice  to  an  obsession  proceeding  from  the  un- 
conscious and  who,  in  spite  of  all  external  and  internal  effort, 
all  precept  and  moral  instruction,  all  ascetic  practices  and 
fervent  vows,  all  punishments  and  rewards,  fall  without  salva- 
tion to  the  compulsion  to  evil  and  make  a wreck  of  their  lives. 

I have  described  the  pathological  liar  (pseudologist)  and 
thief  (kleptomaniac),  the  hater  of  men  (especially  parents  and 
brothers  and  sisters,  as  well  as  their  substitutes)  and  of  ani- 
mals, the  solitary  men  who  trust  no  one  and  hence  can  make 
no  truly  social  use  of  their  powers,  the  quarrelsome,  obstinate 
and  eccentric  people  who,  in  anarchistic  bitterness,  scent  the 
father-substitute  everywhere  and  angrily  resist  it,  the  crank 
who,  in  the  leading-string  of  an  infantile  complex  of  inferior- 
ity, becomes  a disagreeable  fool,  and  in  misconstruction  of  the 
real  relations,  constantly  throws  a block  between  his  feet,  the 
self-torturer  who  sentences  himself  in  masochistic  pleasure- 
hunger  to  unfruitful  asceticism,  and  who,  because  of  his  in- 
ability to  utilize  the  good  things  of  life,  properly  rationalizes  a 
higher  style  of  life,  the  grim  sadist  who  executes  his  inhibited 
sexual  instinct  with  cruel  pleasure  upon  animals  and  other 
people,  perhaps  even  martyring  harmless  persons  to  death  in 
the  name  of  Jesus,  the  fanatic  in  sport,  nature-cures,  affairs  of 
morality,  etc.  From  the  slight  peculiarity  of  reading-mania 
or  obsessional  smoking,  up  to  the  crimes  of  arson  and  murder,* 

* H.  Schmid,  Zur  Psychol,  der  Brandstifter,  Psychol.  Abh.  edited  by 


VALUE  OF  PSYCHOANALYSIS  TO  MORALS  541 


psychoanalysis  shows  us  an  immensely  comprehensive  and 
well-filled  scale  of  moral  offenses  resulting  from  complexes, 
which  could  be  overcome  by  non-analytic  methods  in  part  not 
at  all,  in  part  only  externally.  He  who  has  seen  in  a large 
number  of  cases  how  psychoanalysis  has  freed  with  compara- 
tive ease  those  unfortunates,  who,  in  spite  of  most  grievous 
efforts,  found  no  help  within  or  without,  can  only  regard  the 
pedagogic  treatment  instituted  by  Freud,  with  admiration  and 
gratitude. 

Obviously,  we  can  also  influence  very  strongly,  analytically, 
the  valuation  of  people  and  view  of  the  world,  so  far  as  these 
are  dictated  by  the  complex.  We  all  know  how  little  it  avails 
to  bring  reason  to  bear  on  the  ideas  of  set  men-haters,  women- 
haters  and  pessimists.  The  reason  is  plain : All  logical  argu- 
ments deal  at  most  with  the  rationalization,  not,  however,  with 
the  real  basis,  the  complex,  from  which  those  ideas  proceed 
apd  are  of  necessity  kept  fresh.  The  analyst  spares  himself 
the  useless  strife.  He  either  applies  the  analysis  where  the 
affairs  demand  and  allow  it,  or  he  refrains  from  doing  any- 
thing. 

Finally,  we  possess  in  psychoanalysis  a wonderful  instru- 
ment for  eliminating  certain  religious  inhibitions  and  bizarre 
manifestations. 

If  we  are  convinced  that  in  the  unconscious,  a great  part  of 
those  superpowers  dwell,  which  rule  our  ordinary  as  well  as 
our  important  performances,  if  we  have  been  taught  by  ex- 
perience that  the  analysis  exercises  a very  strong  influence  on 
those  subliminal  powers,  then  we  will  consider  it  the  duty  of 
every  professional  educator  to  become  acquainted  with  psycho- 
analysis. 

2.  Degree  op  Mental  Restoration  and  Bad  Results 

We  may  speak  of  healing  in  different  senses : A wound  may 
be  well  healed  if  the  organism  is  exactly  as  powerful  and 
capable  of  resistance  as  before  the  injury.  A facial  erysipelas 

Jung,  Vol.  I,  pp.  80-179.  For  my  refutation  of  most  of  Schmid’s  state- 
ments, see  Internat.  Zeitschr.  f.  med.  Psa.  111. 


542 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


is  completely  recovered  from,  no  symptom,  no  visible  defect, 
is  left  behind  but  the  healed  patient  is  still  prejudiced,  for  he 
is  subject  in  high  degree  to  the  danger  of  a recrudescence. 
Inversely,  a broken  bone  knits  so  firmly  that  the  once  injured 
place  enjoys  greater  solidity  than  before  the  fracture.  No 
physician  can  promise  that  the  recovered  person  will  never 
stumble  again  and  break  a limb  but  he  can  assert  that  the  prob- 
ability of  a break  in  the  former  position  is  lessened.  Finally, 
we  know  recoveries  which  leave  the  body  entirely  immune  to 
the  preceding  disease. 

Now,  how  is  the  psychoanalytic  cure  to  be  understood? 
Freud’s  expectations  were  at  first  very  modest.  He  did  not 
think  of  curing  the  hysteria  itself ; he  thought  he  must  be  satis- 
fied with  the  removal  of  the  individual  symptoms.  Moreover, 
in  dementia  pracox,  he  held,  like  Jung,  that  the  analysis  was 
inapplicable.  The  experience  of  two  decades  has  exceeded 
these  all  too  modest  assumptions.  Permanent  cures  of  hysteria 
have  been  observed  in  immense  numbers  and  even  psychoses 
like  dementia  praecox  (in  catatonic,  hebephrenic  and  paranoid 
forms)  and  manic-depressive  insanity  have  been  cured  analyt- 
ically, even  though  such  outcomes  are,  for  the  time  being,  still 
rare  and  further  the  prognosis  ih  this  class  of  maladies  seems 
so  far  rather  poor. 

The  thoroughness  and  permanency  of  the  cure  depends  on 
various  factors:  on  the  depth  of  the  actual  analytic  explora- 
tion (analysis  of  the  past),  on  the  purity  of  the  attitude  to- 
ward life  (analysis  of  the  future),  on  the  grade  of  neurotic  dis- 
position, on  external  conditions.  In  general,  one  may  con- 
fidently say : If  subject  and  analyst  have  worked  carefully  to- 
gether, clearly  illuminated  and  vivified  the  unconscious,  dis- 
tinctly recognized  the  inner  law  of  life,  taken  firm  hold  on 
reality,  then  the  one-time  sick  person  is  in  a position  to  master 
very  hard  relations  without  neurotic  relapse.  I have  often 
seen  individuals,  who,  before  the  analysis,  were  thrown  off  the 
track  by  petty  things,  bear  grievous  experiences  of  life  with 
calm  equanimity.  The  number  of  relapses  known  to  me  is 


BAD  RESULTS  IN  PSYCHOANALYSIS  543 


surprisingly  small.  If  a recurrence  of  the  old  symptom  occurs, 
a little  after-help  usually  suffices  to  bring  order  again. 

The  analytic  cures  may  be  considered  in  general  as  actually 
permanent.  In  this  regard,  they  surpass  very  markedly,  ac- 
cording to  the  view  of  all  who  know,  the  cures  by  hypnosis  and 
pure  suggestion. 

Even  the  best  methods  of  treatment  have  disappointments 
and  bad  results.  Psychoanalysis  offers  no  exception  in  this 
regard.  In  all  stages  of  the  treatment,  one  may  occasionally 
experience  disappointments.  Many  patients  will  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  analysis  after  they  have  heard  of  the  sacrifices 
of  time  and  moral  effort  which  the  method  demands.  They 
were  not  sincere  in  wishing  salvation.  They  decide  on  no 
second  visit  and  the  analyst  certainly  never  invites  to  one. 
Others  at  first  seem  willing  and  disclose  a part  of  their  com- 
plex-material. As  the  deeper  impulses  in  the  series  appear, 
however,  they  hide  in  the  bulwarks  of  an  insurmountable  re- 
sistance and  turn  inward  only  so  much  the  deeper.  Still,  this 
case  is  less  frequent.  Others  go  to  pieces  on  the  rocks  of  the 
transference.  Still  others  wish  at  no  price  to  respect  the  inner 
imperative  and  attack  the  problem  of  life. 

We  analytic  pedagogues  do  well  to  search  always  for  the  mis- 
takes within  ourselves.  But  we  make  ourselves  guilty  of  sus- 
picious mistreatment  of  self  when  we  set  the  bad  result  down 
to  our  own  account  every  time.  Surely,  we  all  have  very 
much  to  learn  and  psychoanalysis  still  greatly  needs  careful 
elaboration,  but  infallibility  we  shall  never  attain. 

If  we  count  up  the  results  and  failures  of  psychoanalysis, 
there  still  remains  a very  great  pedagogic  gain. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


THE  RESULTS  FOR  PEDAGOGY 

That  education  receives  from  the  psychoanalytic  investiga- 
tion a greatly  strengthened  importance,  has  already  been  ex- 
plained (113f).  It  may  now  be  pointed  out  that  this  consists 
in  an  extensive  and  an  intensive  increase  in  value.  The  for- 
mer, because  the  first  four  or  five  years  of  life  predetermine 
with  uncommon  force  the  future  development;  and  also  the 
need  for  education  in  many  neurotic  healthy  and  sick  adults 
comes  glaringly  to  expression.  The  intensive  increase  in 
valuation  of  education  results  from  the  sufficiently  proven 
circumstance  that  the  mental  achievements  of  a whole  life- 
time, even  as  far  as  the  attitude  toward  humanity,  choice  of 
profession,  artistic,  ethical,  philosophic  and  religious  en- 
deavors depend,  in  great  part,  on  educational  influences.  In 
order  to  forestall  a harmful  misunderstanding,  it  may  at  once 
be  added  that  the  higher  valuation  of  educational  influences 
perhaps — we  shall  investigate  the  problem — narrow  the  extent 
of  the  voluntary  influences  upon  the  pupil  and  force  a fight 
against  ‘ ‘ over-education.  ’ ’ 

Also  the  kind  and  method  of  pedagogy,  under  which  we  do 
not  understand  with  Durr  * merely  a science,  but  with  Mess- 
mer,f  theory  and  practice  of  education,  experiences  a change 
from  the  analysis.  Previously,  it  devoted  itself  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  conscious  mental  life  of  the  pupil ; when  it  also 
attempted  to  bring  out  unconscious  or  dispositional  objects  of 
physical  or  (rarely)  psychical  kind,  it  turned  in  so  doing  to 
the  conscious  thought,  feeling  and  will  and  made  use  of  the 

* Diirr,  Einfiihrung  in  der  Padagogik,  p.  16. 

f Messmer,  Lehrbuch  der  allgem.  Pad.  p.  4. 

544 


PSYCHOANALYSIS  IN  PEDAGOGY 


545 


synthesis.  If  we  are  now  certain  that  the  mental  processes 
go  back  in  great  part  to  unconscious  processes  and  are  to  be 
strongly  influenced  by  penetration  into  the  unconscious 
regions  of  the  mind,  indeed  that  very  often  alone  by  such 
analytic  work  the  desired  influencing  of  harmful  tendencies 
is  to  be  attained,  then  psychoanalysis  becomes  an  important, 
in  many  cases,  even  an  indispensable  educational  instrument, 
even  though  it  cannot  be  applied  in  practice  by  all  educators. 

This  is  not  proclaiming  psychoanalysis  the  only  sacred,  only 
justifiable  or- even  only  necessary  method.  As  little  as  ethics, 
esthetics  and  metaphysics  * may  expect  an  answer  to  all  their 
questions  from  it,  so  little  may  the  science  of  pedagogy.  The 
former  methods  and  also  the  experimental  ones  may  calmly 
continue  their  efforts.  I must,  of  course,  frankly  confess  that 
for  me  the  analytic  work  gained  incomparably  deeper  glimpses 
into  the  pupils  ’ minds  than  all  other  methods  together  and  that 
I derived  far  better  counsel  in  very  important  cases  from  the 
analysis  in  the  management  of  the  educational  object  than 
from  any  kind  of  text-books,  because  the  latter  did  not  value 
the  weightiest  determinants  of  life  or  at  least  not  enough. 

The  pedagogy  of  the  future  will  without  doubt  join  systemat- 
ically the  analytic  method  more  to  the  synthetic  method  than 
has  been  possible  in  this  book. 

In  the  present  status  of  the  investigation,  no  one  will  expect 
me  to  state  the  whole  benefit  which  pedagogy  has  to  gain  from 
the  fields  of  psychoanalysis.  "What  I have  to  offer  are  only 
isolated  experiments  which  may  invite  productive  educators  to 
investigation  on  their  own  part. 

1.  Remarks  on  the  Position  of  Parents  to  the  Child  in 

General 

The  psychoanalytic  pedagogy  lays  great  stress  on  prophy- 
laxis. It  helps  us  to  avoid  an  immense  amount  of  misery,  of 
which  to-day  even  the  educators,  otherwise  clever,  are  un- 
suspectingly guilty.  The  importance  of  prevention  was  also 
emphasized  in  the  older  education. 

* Silberer,  Eine  prinzip.  Anregung.  Jahrb.  IV,  p.  801  ff. 


546 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


We  have  heard  that  the  attitude  toward  the  parents  very 
often  determines  for  a lifetime  the  attitude  toward  people  in 
general  and  toward  life  itself.  In  almost  every  pupil  who 
hates  the  teacher,  in  many  anarchists  and  haters  of  religion, 
we  discover  a disguised  enemy  of  the  father.  Such  revolution- 
aries do  not  mind  destroying  themselves  if  only  their  hate 
comes  to  its  reckoning.  In  many  a Don  Juan,  we  found  the 
childish  remnant  of  a fixation  on  the  mother. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  desired  of  parents  that  they  take 
account  of  the  needs  of  their  children  for  affection  and  favor, 
and  gratify  it  in  a reasonable  manner.  In  this  regard,  I need 
to  state  nothing  absolutely  new  but  believe  by  the  description 
of  our  investigations  to  be  able  to  lend  new  weight  to  the  old 
demands.  If  the  child  is  treated  too  tenderly  and  respectfully, 
it  is  threatened  by  serious  dangers : covetousness  awakens  to  a 
degree  plainly  characterized  by  sexuality.  The  fixation  on  the 
parents  becomes  all  too  strong  when  sweetest  caresses  are 
handed  out  without  effort  on  the  part  of  the  child.*  When  the 
child  recoils  from  the  rough  external  world,  he  flees, 
frightened,  to  the  household  paradise  of  the  child  and  creates 
for  himself  autistic  pleasure  by  revivifying  the  one-time  joys 
of  childhood.  We  know  that  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  the 
neurosis  lies  here. 

Especially  when  the  child,  without  valuable  achievement,  is 
overwhelmed  with  affection  and  recognition  in  sickness,  does 
it  come  into  serious  danger  of  obtaining  surreptitiously  by 
neurotic  troubles  those  sweet  pleasures.  We  have  heard  of 
bed-wetting  to  make  the  father  and  mother  attentive;  we 
could,  however,  name  a great  number  of  other  coercive  habits. 
Too  lenient  parents,  who  give  their  children  the  best  without 
requiring  reciprocal  performances  on  their  part,  easily  ruin 
their  lives. 

Almost  still  worse,  nevertheless,  works  the  refusal  of  affec- 
tion and  recognition.  The  child  must  learn  to  subject  his  need 

* Freud,  Die  zwei  Prinzipien  des  psych.  Geschehens.  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  6. 
Adler,  Das  Zartlichkeitsbediirfnis  des  Kindes.  Monatsh.  f.  Padogogik  u. 
Schulpolitik,  1908,  p.  8 f. 


TRAINING  OF  CHILDREN 


547 


of  love  to  reality.  Further,  love  is,  as  Freud  says  in  an  unpub- 
lished analysis,  an  art  which  must  be  learned.  If  the  child  is 
slighted,  if  one  shows  him  no  sympathy,  if  one  does  not  listen 
to  his  wishes  and  confessions,  a repression  occurs.  The  child 
must  withdraw  the  love,  which  has  developed  for  the  mother  as 
a result  of  the  reception  of  nourishment  and  care  of  his  body, 
from  her  and  if  a new  carrier  of  emotion  is  not  at  hand,  as 
a grandmother  or  a teacher,  introversion  will  result  from  the 
erotic  damming  back.  We  know  that  herein  the  danger  of  dis- 
taste for  life,  hatred  of  humanity,  shut-offness  and  eccentricity 
is  near,  and  the  moral  development,  the  unfolding  of  the  per- 
sonality and  love  for  neighbors  are  seriously  endangered. 
If  humanity  would  be  spared  the  many  sadistically  inclined 
teachers,  officers  and  public  prosecutors,  mean  superiors,  ill- 
humored  philosophers,  education  must  bring  the  spirit  of 
benevolence  more  strongly  into  force. 

For  this  reason,  parents  must  exercise  particular  care  that 
no  feeling  of  inferiority  be  aroused.  Not  only  is  the  feeling  of 
physical  defect  to  be  avoided  but  just  as  much  or  indeed  more 
carefully  that  of  incurable  intellectual  and  moral  indignity. 
The  belief  that  the  physical  constitution  is  entirely  sufficient, 
is  certainly  also  necessary.  If  an  organic  inferiority  exists,  one 
shows  the  child  the  possibility  of  compensations.  One  should 
not  show  preference  for  the  boys  over  the  girls,  thereby  creating 
a “masculine  protest”  (Adler)  in  the  latter,  which  may  lead 
to  the  neurosis.  Bad  pupils  should  be  shown  the  more  impor- 
tant censor  of  the  later  life  and  also  the  high  value  of  proper 
learning.  If  a complex  of  inferiority  has  already  been  formed,, 
it  absorbs  an  immense  amount  of  intellectual  energy,  substi- 
tutes unproductive  anxiety  in  place  of  refreshing  pleasure,  ex- 
changes the  joyous  play  of  free  interests  for  a-  slavish,  tor- 
menting attention  to  routine.  Many  a father  who  wishes  to 
inspire  his  weak  or  differently  gifted  son,  who  already  suffers 
from  repression  and  fixation,  by  the  evidence  of  his  own 
achievements,  forces  him  into  difficult  mental  straits  and  robs 
him  of  an  enormous  quantity  of  useful  mental  energy.  Thus, 
it  comes  about  that  pupils  of  supposedly  poor  endowment,  who 


548 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


have  been  forced  by  complexes  into  inhibitions  for  work,  after 
the  analysis  prove  to  be  people  capable  of  instruction. 

Further,  the  recognition  should  be  dependent  on  what  may 
justly  be  expected  and  not  be  excessive.  Freud  rightly  lays 
great  weight  on  the  point  that  the  attraction  of  the  ego- 
instinct  be  utilized  in  the  conquest  of  reality.  ‘ ‘ Education  can 
be  described  as  incitement  to  the  mastering  of  the  pleasure- 
principle,  to  the  replacement  of  this  principle  by  the  reality- 
principle  ; it  will  thus  afford  an  aid  to  the  process  of  develop- 
ment (from  pleasure  to  reality  principle)  which  concerns  the 
ego,  to  this  end  making  use  of  the  premiums  of  love  on  the  side 
of  the  educators  and  hence  miscarrying  when  the  spoiled  child 
thinks  that  it  already  possesses  this  love  regardless,  and  can  lose 
it  under  no  circumstances.  ’ ’ * 

In  order  that  the  child  may  have  a normal  relation  to  father 
and  mother,  both  parents  must  work  together  harmoniously. 
Freud  remarks : ‘ ‘ The  wife  ungratified  by  her  husband,  is,  as 
mother,  over-tender  and  sentimental  toward  the  child  on  whom 
she  transfers  her  need  of  love  and  awakens  in  it  sexual  pre- 
cocity. The  bad  relations  between  the  parents  irritate  the 
emotional  life  of  the  child,  causing  him  to  feel  intensively  in 
tenderest  age,  love,  hate  and  jealousy.  The  strict  education 
which  allows  no  kind  of  activity  to  the  prematurely  awakened 
sexual  life,  assists  the  suppressing  force  and  this  conflict  at 
this  age  contains  everything  necessary  for  the  causation  of 
life-long  nervousness.”  t Probably  of  equal  frequency,  is  the 
other  case  of  a woman  detesting  the  children  of  a hated  hus- 
band. If  she  wishes  to  combat  her  dislike  from  sense  of  duty, 
she  falls  into  the  counter-reaction  of  an  over-education  which 
really  drives  into  the  neurosis.  In  such  situations,  the  chil- 
dren should  be  entrusted  to  strangers  for  education.  Freud, 
in  oral  explanation,  presents  the  thought  that  a neurosis  caused 
by  separation  from  parents  unsuitable  for  educating  the  child, 
is  less  bad  than  an  entirely  unsuccessful  education. 

* Freud,  Die  zwei  Prinz.  Jahrb.  Ill,  p.  6. 

t Freud,  Die  “kulturelle”  Sexualmoral  u.  d.  moderne  Nervosit&t. 
Kl.  Schr.  n,  p.  194. 


EMANCIPATION  OF  CHILD  FROM  PARENTS  519 


Finally,  it  is  obvious  that  the  life-force  should  not  be  re- 
stricted by  the  parents  to  a condition  not  to  be  endured,  as  a 
result  of  the  denial  of  deep-rooted  wishes  or  the  utilization  of 
external  compulsion.  It  is  better  when  the  highest  degree  of 
compulsion  which  the  life  and  the  acquirement  of  the  greatest 
possible  ability  render  necessary,  is  applied  by  strangers.  The 
parents  should  so  far  as  possible  be  the  liberators,  protectors, 
kind  helpers  and  friends  of  their  children,  though  not  as  foster- 
ing laziness  and  sensuality. 

Highly  important  then  is  the  point  of  view  of  the  gradual 
separation  from  the  parents.  Wise  parents  educate  their  chil- 
dren with  no  more  compulsion  than  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
the  adoption  of  healthy  habits  of  life.  They  know  that  not 
obedient,  but  good  children  form  the  goal  of  education.  They 
wish,  therefore,  not  to  be  overestimated  and  guard  against  al- 
lowing fear  of  their  persons  to  grow  as  a prevailing  attitude. 
They  afford  their  children  as  much  room  for  expression  as  pos- 
sible and  loose  the  reins  more  and  more.  He  who  has  seen  the 
infernal  wrath  of  countless  neurotics  who  are  ready  to  destroy 
themselves  merely  to  torment  the  father,  knows  that  these 
statements  express  no  commonplace  but  an  ideal,  from  the  at- 
tainment of  which,  we  are  for  the  most  part  far  removed.  If 
the  emancipation  from  the  parents  in  favor  of  higher  consid- 
erations once  enjoined  upon  us  by  Jesus,  does  not  occur,  stag- 
nation and  regression  appear.  Even  the  highly  talented  Jews 
and  Chinese  remain  dependent  on  the  father  for  centuries  and 
experience  an  ossification  of  their  culture. 

Only  from  the  gradual  relinquishment  of  the  relation  of  de- 
pendence, can  proceed  that  higher,  free  piety  which  gives  the 
father  the  love  of  the  child  and  forms  a source  of  blessing  for 
both. 

To  such  education,  succeed  only  parents  who  are  themselves 
free  from  complexes.  The  mistakes  of  the  children  are  to  a 
certain  extent,  the  reflection  of  the  parents’  mistakes.  Only 
the  person  who  is  educated  and  inwardly  free,  can  educate 
properly.  For  every  other,  even  the  ideal  pedagogic  introduc- 
tion is  of  only  modest  value. 


550 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


2.  The  Position  of  the  Brothers  and  Sisters 

Usually  the  newborn  child  is  viewed  with  displeasure  by 
little  brother  and  sister  but  this  applies  particularly  to  giving 
up  to  the  newly  arrived  rival,  parental  affection  and  material 
advantages.  On  this  account,  the  parents  should  vividly  por- 
tray the  advantages  which  the  intruding  mortal  brings  with 
him. 

It  is  not  good  when  brothers  and  sisters  are  too  closely  at- 
tached to  one  another.  Often,  this  over-affection  betrays  an 
unconscious  fixation  which  makes  itself  evident  in  all  kinds 
of  ways.  We  heard  of  obsessional  neurosis  as  result  of  father- 
and  brother-sister  complex  (72),  of  inability  to  speak  with  a 
strange  girl  and  melancholia  accompanying  it  (266),  of  in- 
ability to  transfer  the  whole  love  to  the  husband  (296,  385 
[Ibsen]),  etc. 

Where  the  attachment  becomes  incestuous,  we  find  in  the 
analysis,  as  a rule,  that  the  love  for  the  sister,  originally  and 
actually  applied  to  the  mother,  and  that  for  the  brother,  to  the 
father. 

Many  prominent  men  have  remained  fixed  in  a love  for  their 
sisters.  The  quarrel  of  brothers  and  sisters  therefore  has  its 
good  teleological  meaning. 

Further,  the  hate  of  brothers  and  sisters  often  proves  to  be 
unfortunate  love,  as  counter-reaction  or  defence  measure 
against  incestuous  attachment.  We  disclosed  one  brother- 
hater  as  sexual  misdoer  who  sought  improper  pleasure  upon 
the  hated  one  (159).  In  my  investigations  into  the  psychology 
of  hate  and  reconciliation,  I showed  another  who  likewise 
covered  his  burning  love  with  his  hate.  I might  present  still 
many  other  examples  for  the  proposition  that  extreme  hate  be- 
tween brothers  and  sisters  often  goes  back  to  love  which  has 
remained  ungranted,  but  nevertheless  deeply  placed  and  I 
can  testify  that  all  other  pedagogic  measures  are  far  inferior 
to  the  analytic  in  the  treatment  of  hate  between  brothers  and 
sisters. 

On  account  of  the  position  which  the  brothers  and  sisters 


TEACHER  AS  FATHER-SUBSTITUTE  55l 


hold  toward  one  another  according  to  our  moral  law,  it  is  not 
good  for  them  to  associate  too  long  exclusively  with  one  an- 
other. If  no  outside  playmates  are  acquired,  a fixation  easily 
arises  which  leads  to  the  neurosis. 

3.  Teacher  and  Educator 

Very  often  the  teacher  forms  a father-substitute  for  the 
pupil.  If,  however,  he  bears  more  traits  which  recall  the 
mother,  he  becomes  identified  with  her.  Hence  the  pupil  trans- 
fers the  emotions  suited  to  one  or  both  parents  upon  their  rep- 
resentative. If  he  hates  his  father,  the  teacher  resembling  the 
father  must  bear  the  whole  grudge,  while  perhaps  another  edu- 
cator receives  the  love  directed  toward  the  mother.  In  path- 
ological cases,  for  example,  in  tremendous  fear  (137),  the  in- 
terchange is  very  plain. 

The  pedagogue  has  therefore  to  say  to  himself  that  he  enters 
into  the  inheritance  of  his  pupil’s  father  or  figures  as  contrast- 
ing substitute.  If  he  acts  accordingly,  he  can  save  himself 
very  many  unnecessary  disciplinary  measures  and  other  un- 
pleasantnesses. Further,  he  does  the  pupil  good.  The  young 
neurotic  wishes  to  conquer  the  father  in  the  teacher.  He  does 
not  perceive  that  he  ought  to  want  to  learn  for  himself,  he 
thinks  of  his  mentor  and,  to  his  injury,  gives  himself  up  to  the 
father-complex. 

If  the  teacher  allows  himself  to  be  provoked  to  anger,  the 
pupil  has  gratified  the  evil  longing  of  his  unconscious.  Fur- 
ther, the  other  educational  errors  which  the  pupil  detects  with 
keen  perception,  are  provoked  in  good  part  by  the  teacher’s 
unconscious. 

Among  teachers,  there  are  many  who  identify  themselves 
with  their  fathers  or  would  outdo  them  and  have  chosen  their 
profession  from  this  cause.*  That  they  are  thus  in  a sad  posi- 
tion is  evident.  There  are  pedagogues  of  superior  talents  who 

* Maeder  reports  of  a neurotic  teacher  who  constantly  phantasied 
himself  as  animal-tamer  or  general  fighting  against  an  army  (Psa.  u. 
Pad.,  p.  297).  The  man  had  always  wanted  to  be  a soldier.  The  poor 
pupils! 


552 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


commit  disciplinary  blunder  after  blunder,  who  treat  pupils 
totally  wrong  and  derive  reproachable  educational  results  from 
these  methods  because  they  are  laboring  under  a negative 
father-complex.  One  of  our  best  analysts  told  of  a patient 
who,  as  teacher  of  a secondary  school,  identified  himself  with 
his  father,  an  over-strict  officer,  as  theologian,  however,  with 
his  mild-mannered  mother.  The  same  man,  as  teacher,  treated 
the  pupils  with  the  same  cruelty  which  he  had  experienced 
from  his  father,  later  as  theologian,  with  feminine  gentleness. 
The  mistakes  of  classes  reflect  even  plainer  the  complexes  of 
their  teacher  than  the  educational  deficiencies  do  the  repres- 
sions and  fixations  of  their  parents. 

If  we  would  reform  the  education  of  youth,  I know  no  better 
means  than  that  we  teachers  undergo  analysis.  As  often  as  I 
had  the  pleasure  of  analyzing  professional  colleagues,  I ob- 
served a profound  shock  upon  the  recognition  of  manifold 
educational  mistakes  which  had  been  committed  under  the  in- 
fluence of  complexes. 

This  inner  purification  is  so  much  the  more  important  since, 
according  to  a statement  of  Mensendieck,  the  complexes  of 
teacher  and  pupil  mutually  seek  one  another.  If  we  are  ignor- 
ant of  our  own  inner  entanglements,  we  act  perhaps  as  un- 
conscious imitators  and  gratify  our  ambition  but  we  expose 
ourselves  to  the  pupil  and  can  with  difficulty  perceive  his 
highest  interests. 

The  more  completely  we  see  through  the  pupil,  so  much  the 
more  interesting  does  he  become  to  us.  And  the  more  pro- 
foundly he  perceives  himself  understood  by  us,  just  so  much 
the  more  influence  do  we  gain  over  him.  He  will  then  no 
longer  attempt  to  escape  a just  and  necessary  command  by  an 
unconsciously  produced  headache,  to  gain  our  sympathy  by 
unconsciously  arranged  sufferings  and  to  pose  as  victim  of 
overwork  when  he  is  lazy. 

If  the  educator  is  freed  from  the  odium  of  the  unloved  father 
and  if  he  becomes  a positive  father-substitute,  he  will  utilize 
this  relation  repeatedly  to  guide  the  pupil  to  the  real  tasks  of 
life  and  free  self-reliance.  "Why  should  one  not  let  himself 


COMPREHENSION  OF  LIFE-PROGRAM  553 


be  a little  idolized  by  young  girls  who  must  turn  somewhere 
with  their  emotions  ? But  the  girl  pupils  must  gain  the  sym- 
pathy of  the  teacher  by  worthy  achievements.  Against  hys- 
terical over-sentimentality,  which  I am  accustomed  to  desig- 
nate ironically  as  psychic  diabetes,  one  behaves  calmly  and 
gently  negatively.  Pupils  of  doubtful  morals,  one  treats  with 
great  caution  that  they  may  not,  realizing  a wish,  accuse  the 
teacher  of  gross  aggressions.* 

It  is  certain  that  psychoanalysis  also  essentially  furthers  the 
theoretical  educational  results  since  it  lays  the  correct  af- 
fective foundation  for  material  study.!  The  dislike  for  one 
or  more  particular  subjects  is  often  successfuly  removed  by 
analysis.  Maeder } reports  of  a boy  who  could  not  learn 
mathematics  and  language  because  his  father  urged  him  par- 
ticularly to  these  subjects;  in  the  natural  sciences  and  tech- 
nique which  were  connected  by  him  with  the  beloved  mother, 
he  did  excellently.  The  psychoanalysis  led  the  excellent  en- 
dowment of  the  boy  to  the  previously  hated  subjects  as  well, 
since  it  disclosed  the  father-complex. 

To  the  most  powerful  analytic  deeds  of  the  educator,  be- 
longs the  elimination  of  a life-illusion  appearing  as  manifesta- 
tion. Under  this  caption,  I understand  the  unconditional 
devotion  to  an  impossible  life-program  coming  about  under 
subliminal  compulsion,  or  one  based  on  illusion.  We  know 
that  many  individuals  get  into  ruinous  place-hunting,  proceed- 
ing only  from  external  splendor  and  applause,  because  they 
would  still  an  infantile  feeling  of  inferiority.  Some  suppress 
themselves  for  their  whole  life,  because  they  identify  them- 
selves with  the  father-image.  Still  other  normal  individuals 

* With  moral  defectives,  it  may  happen  that  they  accuse  the  analyst 
of  immoral  intentions  or  indeed  actions.  This  happens  not  alone  in  the 
psychoanalytic  practice.  Morally  depraved  or  hysterical  girls  have 
often  brought  innocent  teachers  to  prison.  But  it  would  seem  that 
from  the  more  exact  understanding  of  the  transference  and  the  proper 
handling  of  this,  the  analytic  method  would  be  much  less  dangerous 
in  this  regard  than  any  other. 

f E.  Schneider,  Psa.  u.  Piid.  Berner  Seminarblatter,  1912,  No.  11, 

p.  323. 

t Maeder,  Psa.  u.  Pad.,  p.  295. 


554- 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


cling,  as  Bertsehinger  showed  in  his  interesting  work,*  as  long 
as  possible  to  a life-lie  until  they  are  driven  to  flight  into  the 
neurosis.  Such  a life-lie  is  constantly  the  counter-reaction 
against  a painful  certainty  and  repulsion  of  a moral  demand. 
The  fanatic  for  truth  and  morality  sublimates  the  liar  and 
adulterer  in  himself,  the  over-happy  individual,  who  is  always 
talking  about  his  “wonderfully  harmonious  marriage,”  his 
“incomparable  health,”  etc.,  hides  himself  and  betrays  to  the 
one  who  knows,  the  inner  feeling  of  unhappiness,  but  wanders 
on  the  dizzy  path  of  danger  from  the  precipice  and  often 
squanders  a large  part  of  his  energy.  The  analyst  helps  such 
blinded  persons,  who  pursue  the  will-of-the-wisp  on  the  glass 
ball  floating  over  the  abyss,  to  see  their  real  situation  and  to 
replace  the  longing  for  an  imaginary  goal  with  the  striving 
after  an  attainable  real  happiness. 

In  this  way,  even  youthful  anarchists,  gunmen,  evil-in- 
tentioned  rascals,  woman-haters,  apostles  of  a brutal  free-love, 
world-despisers,  world-conquerors,  oppressors  and  similar  dif- 
ficult patients  may  be  made  amenable  to  the  educator  and  allow 
themselves  to  be  saved  by  him  from  tormenting,  often  life-long 
persisting,  grievous  errors. 

If  one  has  helped  only  one  pupil  in  a class  to  salvation,  the 
effect  upon  the  class  is  often  very  strong,!  since  just  such 
prominent  neurotics  often  give  the  tone  to  the  class. 

4.  Authority  and  Freedom,  Asceticism  and 
Indulgence  in  Pedagogy 

From  certain  sides,  some  old  demands  of  the  Catholic  peda- 
gogy have  been  put  forth  anew,  especially  those  of  subjection 
to  authorities,  to  asceticism  and  the  forbidding  of  thought  in 
religious  matters. 

Asceticism  in  the  sense  of  the  carrying  out  of  artificial  re- 
nunciation of  pleasure  and  the  infliction  of  pain  for  the  pur- 

* H.  Bertsehinger,  fiber  Gelegenheitsursachen  gewisser  Neurosen  und 
Psychosen.  Allg.  Zsehr.  f.  Psychiatrie  u.  psychisch.-gerichtl.  Medizin. 
Vol.  69  (1912),  pp.  588-617. 

f Maeder,  Psa.  u.  Pad.,  p.  295. 


CRITICISM  OF  ASCETICISM 


555 


pose  of  strengthening  the  will,  receives  a brilliant  illumination 
from  psychoanalysis,  we  have  often  though  to  deal  with  in- 
dividuals who  have  been  brought  into  dire  mental  states  and 
emotional  disease  by  those  enforced  demands. 

Aside  from  the  fact  that  many  of  these  practices,  for  ex- 
ample, too  early  rising,  breaking  of  the  night’s  rest,  cause 
direct  exhaustion,  I name  the  following  dangers  from  asceti- 
cism: 

1.  In  the  ascetic,  there  develops  (masochistic)  pleasure  in 
self-torture.  I recall  the  young  girl,  who,  from  ascetic  mo- 
tives, poured  on  a wound  the  quadruple  strength  of  corrosive 
prescribed,  pretendedly  to  fix  the  energy,  but  who  thereby 
felt  a distinct  sensation  of  pleasure.  Often  this  masochistic 
desire  becomes  so  strong  that  it  leads  to  self-destruction,-  as 
countless  women  ascetics,  Saint  Elizabeth  in  particular,  show. 

2.  The  transference  of  the  libido  to  reality  ceases.  The 
ascetic  becomes  suspicious  of  real  things  and  introverted.  An 
autistic  looking-to-the-future  mood  takes  away  the  value  of 
the  moral  relations  and  tasks,  an  ardent  eroticism  changes 
very  often  to  the  ugly  form  of  figures  of  the  future  life  but  at 
the  cost  of  love  for  neighbors.  Or  a stoicism  bursts  forth 
which  finally,  as  we  have  seen  in  one  ease,  drives  to  danger  of 
suicide  and  anxiety,  robbing  the  moral  life  and  likewise  the 
libido. 

3.  The  withholding  of  proper  demands  of  instinct,  for  ex- 
ample, in  eating,  invests  the  good  withheld  with  a strong  over- 
emphasis. The  hungry  person  thinks  unduly  of  food. 

4.  If  asceticism  does  not  attain  its  goal,  there  easily  results 
a complete  breakdown  with  self-condemnation  and  loss  of  will 
(abulia).  These  misfortunes  are  probably  among  the  most 
frequent  sacrifices  to  asceticism. 

5.  The  repressed  instincts  often  reappear  in  the  center  of  the 
sublimation  in  the  ugliest  manner,  compare  judges  of  heretics, 
whose  unsatisfied  sexual  instinct  knew  how  to  find  satisfaction 
in  sadistic  form.  Asceticism  strengthens  the  morally  disrepu- 
table counter-reactions  since  it  prevents  the  investment  of  the 
libido  in  reality. 


556 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


6.  He  who  is  harsh  with  himself  by  asceticism,  becomes  the 
same  toward  others,  since  masochism  and  sadism  are  constantly 
associated.  Pharisees,  Dominicans  and  many  other  adherents 
of  asceticism  are  deficient  in  pity.  This  corresponds  with  the 
fact  that  the  ascetic  bears  an  autoerotic  character. 

7.  Asceticism  displaces  the  moral  combat  of  socially  im- 
portant matters  to  unimportant  private  affairs.  Thus,  an  in- 
dividual may  shine  autoerotically  but  be  a wight  in  social- 
ethical  sense. 

8.  Asceticism  wishes  to  take  up  with  coercion  a strug- 
gle against  the  compulsions  of  complexes  and  thereby 
causes  grievous  tortures  without  the  slightest  prospect  of  re- 
sults. 

Because  of  all  these  reasons,  I consider  asceticism,  in  the 
sense  named,  a dangerous  and  highly  injurious  pedagogic 
measure.  That  which  it  cannot  achieve  with  its  rack  and 
screws,  may  often  be  attained  by  psychoanalysis  without  any 
torture  at  all.  How  many  pupils  who  were  visited  with  ascetic 
demands  even  to  exhaustion  and  in  the  masochistic  rage  of  the 
neurotic,  eagerly  grasped  the  opportunity  for  self-maltreat- 
ment until  exhausted  they  broke  down,  has  psychoanalysis 
saved  by  its  message  of  salvation  and  gained  for  morally 
valuable  lives ! 

In  the  place  of  autoerotic  asceticism,  psychoanalysis  sets  up 
the  practice  of  neighborly  love  which  fights  out  the  moral 
combat  on  the  floor  of  reality  and  helps  the  dammed-up  in- 
stinct to  sublimation  by  way  of  transference.  Not  the  scourge, 
but  love,  helps  to  salvation,  not  the  autoerotic,  but  the  social- 
ethical  panerotic  asceticism,  if  we  would  still  retain  the  his- 
torically important  expression  for  such  exercises  of  the  will. 
Love  and  service  is  the  best  self-education. 

The  pedagogy  of  unconditional  authority  is  inglorious  in 
the  light  of  psychoanalysis.  He  who  espouses  it,  suffers  from  a 
father-complex  which  allows  him  to  be  partial  to  dogmas, 
priests,  sacred  writings,  scientific  quantities,  political  memo- 
ries and  other  substitutes  but  not  to  come  to  true  individual 
life.  The  pedagogy  of  subjection  is  the  source  of  neuroses  and 


AIM  OF  PSYCHOANALYTIC  THERAPEUSIS  557 


counter-reactions.  It  is  the  grave  of  the  free,  fully  developed 
and  fully  valued  personality. 

On  the  other  hand,  psychoanalysis  teaches  us  that  the  hap- 
piness of  men  depends  on  the  suitable  investment  of  the  libido 
capital.  It  shows  us  that  the  introverted,  inwardly  isolated, 
love-poor  man  is  sick.  It  teaches  us  that  we  were  all  created, 
not  like  Antigone  to  hate  one  another,  but  to  love  one  another. 
Hence  it  joins  men  in  love,  thus  also  in  freedom,  for  freedom 
lies  in  the  nature  of  truly  moral  love.  To  draw  men  from 
introversion,  is  the  aim  of  the  psychoanalytic  therapeusis.  In 
its  eyes,  the  introverted  individual  is  like  a wander-cell  which 
has  escaped  from  the  organism.  Thus  the  analytic  pedagogy 
forms  the  firmest  foundation  for  the  life  of  the  community. 
It  furthers  also  that  only  true  reverence  which  is  equally  re- 
moved from  self-disparagement  and  hatred  of  superiors,  the 
manifestation  of  the  positive  and  negative  father-complex. 
Thus  the  psychoanalytic  education  agrees  with  F.  Th.  Vischer 
who  in  a happy  hour  wrote  the  words : 

“Blindly  revered  is  a great  man 
By  the  good  man  who  can  accomplish  nothing. 

Not  revered  is  a free  man 

By  the  wight  who  can  see  nothing  great. 

Freely  revered  is  a great  man 

By  the  man  who  can  do  something  himself.” 

It  is  striking  how  in  psychoanalytic  circles,  after  the  begin- 
ning when  only  the  demand  for  allowing  as  much  freedom  as 
possible  in  education  was  emphasized,  now  the  demand  for 
strong  guidance  is  also  emphasized.  To-day,  some  emphasize 
with  Maeder:  “For  many  children,  complete  freedom  means 
dilettantism,  the  beginning  of  wasting  time,  of  indolence.”* 
“To  the  natural  free  development  of  the  child  belongs  the  re- 
gard for  his  need  of  guidance.  ’ ’ t But  it  is  well  to  remember : 
“The  guiding  role  of  the  physician  (we  would  say  of  the 
analyzing  educator)  consists  not  in  his  allowing  himself  to  be 
received  simply  in  the  series  of  substitutes  for  the  father 

* Maeder,  Psa.  u.  Pad.,  p.  298.  f Same,  p.  301. 


558 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


(teacher,  pastor,  elder  friend,  a popular  hero,  a great  man, 
the  king,  a national  hero,  a great  editor  or  author  or  artist, 
later,  God  or  a higher  principle)  but  rather  in  the  furtherance 
of  the  development  of  the  original  father-image  to  the  in- 
dividual ideal,  i.  e.,  to  the  ideal  which  would  have  been  possible 
for  the  person  in  question  if  he  had  not  been  inhibited  by  the 
infantile  fixation.”* 

The  analyst  makes  his  demands  likewise,  but  he  directs  the 
mental  energies  toward  the  decisive  point  and  does  not  throw 
them  away  on  the  shadow  pictures  of  the  manifestation  and 
allow  them  to  exhaust  themselves  there.  As  has  been  re- 
marked before,  the  analysis  teaches  us  to  value  the  helping 
force  of  work. 

5.  Punishment 

I presuppose  that  the  reader  considers  the  aim  of  punish- 
ment to  be  improvement.  The  educator  who  punishes,  wishes 
to  amalgamate  with  the  idea  of  unlawful  desire  that  of  a 
threatening  pain  and  thereby  to  deter  from  the  same,  to  make 
the  child  prudent  by  injury  (wisdom-giving  punishment).! 
Modern  pedagogy  emphasizes  in  general  that  it  depends  on  the 
production  of  shame  and  repentance. 

Psychoanalysis  shows  us  that  on  one  side,  punishment  or  any 
other  method  which  takes  account  only  of  the  conscious  mental 
life,  cannot  possibly  attain  those  moral  reactions  so  long  as 
the  unconscious  interposes  its  veto,  that  on  the  other  side, 
shame,  repentance,  most  ardent  volition  do  not  in  the  least 
remove  the  old  mistakes,  but  on  the  contrary,  strengthen  them 
when  the  unconscious  puts  the  moral  life  in  chains.  Psycho- 
analysis affords  us  further  the  certain  proof  that  the  infliction 
of  punishment  prevailing  to-day  and  recommended  by  most 
text-books  on  pedagogy,  causes  much  suffering  because  it  does 
not  know  and  take  into  account  the  true  instinctive  sources  of 
action.  The  correct  attitude  of  love  and  of  need  of  mastery 

* Same,  p.  302. 

t Ackermann,  Art.  “Strafe”  in  Reins  Encvkl.  Handb.  d.  Piidagogik, 
Vol.  6 (Langensalza  1899),  p.  919. 


VALUE  OF  PUNISHMENT 


559 


is  that  which  rules  the  moral  action  and  how  can  punishment 
guide  that  primitive  force? 

Let  us  take,  for  example,  a boy  who  suffers  from  a severe 
unconscious  conflict  with  his  father  or  one  which  is  fed  from 
the  unconscious.  He  has  to  give  an  evil  interpretation  to  the 
father’s  best-intentioned  advice,  the  good  object  of  which  he 
immediately  recognizes  with  everyone  else.  Or  let  us  imagine 
a youth  tormented  by  a complex  of  inferiority,  what  does  he 
care  about  punishment  ? Adler  gives  the  following  picture  of 
the  psychological  condition  of  that  kind  of  people:  “To  the 
feeling  of  inferiority,  there  correspond  traits,  like  anxious- 
ness, doubt,  uncertainty,  bashfulness,  cowardice  and  height- 
ened feelings  of  need  of  support  and  submissive  obedience. 
Along  with  these  characteristics  are  found  phantasies,  indeed 
even  wishes,  which  one  can  classify  together  as  ideas  of  small- 
ness and  masochistic  impulses.  Above  this  texture  of  char- 
acter-traits, there  are  regularly — with  view  of  rejecting  and 
compensating — impudence,  courage  and  rashness,  tendency  to 
insubordination,  obstinacy  and  defiance,  accompanied  by  phan- 
tasies and  wishes  for  the  role  of  hero,  warrior,  robber,  in 
short,  ideas  of  grandeur  and  sadistic  impulses.  ” * “ The 
whole  instinctive  life  of  the  child  becomes  stimulated  and  over- 
intense, vengeful  thoughts  and  death  wishes  against  his  own 
person,  as  against  the  surroundings  upon  the  slightest  provo- 
cation, childish  errors  and  misdeeds  are  obstinately  retained, 
and  sexual  precocity,  sexual  desire,  breaks  over  the  child-mind 
in  order  to  be  like  the  adults,  of  full  value.  The  power  which 
can  do  everything,  which  has  everything — that  is  the  father  or 
one  who  represents  him,  the  mother,  an  elder  brother,  the 
teacher.  He  becomes  the  opponent  who  must  be  fought,  the 
child  becomes  blind  and  deaf  to  his  guidance,  misinterprets 
all  good  intentions,  becomes  mistrustful  and  extremely  critical 
of  all  influences  which  come  from  the  father,  briefly,  he  has  an 
attitude  of  defiance,  but  has  directly  thereby  made  himself 
dependent  on  the  opinion  of  others.” 

* Adler,  Trotz  u.  Gehorsam.  Monatsh.  f.  Pad.  u.  Schulpolitik,  1910, 
Part  9. 


560 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


Adler  shows  further  that  with  such  children,  under  external 
subjection,  the  ground  of  complete  obedience  is  already  un- 
dermined and  the  neurosis  already  in  formation.  I have  shown 
sufficient  examples  of  this.  I might  further  tell  of  a model 
boy  of  fifteen  who  was  under  the  obsession  of  interpolating  in 
every  prayer  for  the  parents  a “not”  which  changed  the 
blessing  into  a curse;  I might  also  mention  the  “retarded 
obedience”  which  exists  in  severe  emotional  troubles  (par- 
ticularly in  the  obsessional  neurosis)  when  the  youth  executes 
by  the  help  of  a ruinous  illness  what  the  father  and  father- 
substitute  has  demanded  of  him.  The  patient  with  fetichism 
for  clothes  described  on  page  331,  who  can  look  at  no  woman 
at  all  without  desiring  her,  is  only  one  of  dozens. 

What  can  the  most  just  punishment,  filled  with  the  most 
beautiful  lessons,  accomplish  in  the  countless  individuals  who 
succumb  to  neurotic  obsession  ? The  defiance  is  only  strength- 
ened, the  incapacity  for  adaptation  to  the  demands  of  life  only 
increased.  The  explanations  of  the  reasons  for  the  punish- 
ment may  be  ever  so  plain,  the  youth  remains  under  the  sway 
of  his  conviction  determined  by  his  complexes:  “Say  what 
you  will,  deep  down  you  intend  to  do  me  ill ! ” Further,  many 
victims  of  complexes  have  already  said  to  themselves  most 
which  the  educator  says  to  them  without  this  making  any 
changes  within  them.  Punishment  will  therefore  only  em- 
bitter them  and  strengthen  the  evil  tendency.  The  sadistic 
tormentor  of  animals  rejoices,  as  we  saw,  when  he  is  chastised 
and  is  only  strengthened  in  his  cruel  inclinations. 

Still  more  clearly  does  psychoanalysis  reveal  the  folly  of 
punishment  for  those  who  are  led  by  it  to  an  ardent  desire  for 
a new,  pure  life  but  who,  as  a.  result  of  inner  attachment, 
cannot  accomplish  this.  They  struggle  as  we  know  from  our 
observation  of  kleptomaniacs  and  complex-compelled  pseudo- 
logians,  perhaps  with  the  exertion  of  all  their  power.  But  the 
more  they  persuade,  pray,  practice  asceticism,  so  much  the 
stronger  are  they  compelled  to  do  evil  which  they  would  not 
do,  to  speak  with  the  Apostle  Paul.*  Punishment  causes  un- 

* Romans  vii.,  15. 


DANGERS  OF  CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT  561 


believable  devastation  there.  Hate,  self-contempt,  melan- 
cholia result  from  such  procedures  and  that  which  the  educator 
carries  out  in  consciousness  of  justice  and  love,  the  youth  feels 
with  perfect  right  as  injustice. 

It  is  surprising  ever  anew  how  such  complex-goaded  mis- 
doers  who  have  been  driven  by  severity  into  ever-increasing 
mental  distress  and  finally  as  true  monsters  have  gained  the 
neurotic’s  victory  over  the  father,  can  be  brought  to  the  right 
way  by  psychoanalysis.  The  pedagogy  desired  by  us  thereby 
avoids  much  aimless,  yes,  pernicious  punishment  and  attains 
by  the  sunshine  of  enlightenment  and  love  what  would  never 
have  been  possible  to  the  assault  of  chastisement.  How  many 
a human  life  would  have  taken  an  entirely  different  direction 
if  the  educators  had  possessed  analytic  knowledge ! 

A word  may  also  be  said  concerning  the  execution  of  punish- 
ment. We  have  shown  repeatedly  how  the  punishment  of 
whipping  is  turned  into  trauma  by  awakening  masochistic 
pleasure.  We  also  saw  the  spectators  suffer  harm.  Accord- 
ing to  the  experience  of  myself  and  other  analysts,  one  must 
reckon  with  a fairly  high  probability  that  there  are  such  per- 
sons in  every  school  class  to  whom  the  infliction  or  the  sight 
of  corporal  punishment  does  injury.  When  one  sees  what  a 
powerful  educational  instrument  a pedagogue,  free  from  bad 
complexes  and  possessing  exact  understanding  of  the  pupils’ 
minds,  has,  one  will  not  find  the  demand  that  corporal  punish- 
ment be  entirely  excluded  from  education,  excessive. 

From  the  mental  means  of  punishment,  it  is  to  be  desired 
that  they  do  not  repressively  maltreat  the  youth ’s  need  for  self- 
assertion.  How  often  have  I observed  “retarded  obedience” 
which  represented  a cruel  revenge  on  the  parents,  from  the 
fact  that  the  censure  of  inferiority  had  been  accepted  and  built 
into  an  obsessional  idea  by  the  child ! It  no  longer  helped  then, 
for  the  parents  to  take  back  their  insult  and  explain:  “We 
did  not  really  mean  it,  you  are  a normal  person!”  The  de- 
grading thought  had  been  set  free  and  was  not  now  to  be  re- 
tracted without  artificial  aid. 


562 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


6.  Sexual  Education 

"We  owe  to  psychoanalysis  the  discovery  of  many  injurious 
influences  which  had  previously  wrought  their  effect  in  the 
darkness  of  ignorance.  In  the  first  place,  we  saw  deviations 
of  the  sexual  instinct  as  enemies  of  life-happiness  and  a healthy 
moral  religious  development. 

The  analytically  enlightened  pedagogy  has  to  take  far  more 
earnest  account  of  the  sexual  excitations  of  the  child  than  has 
previously  been  the  case.  It  forbids  excessive  fondling,  of 
which  ungratified  husbands  and  wives  are  often  guilty.  It 
warns  particularly  against  allowing  children  after  the  first 
•year  of  life  in  the  sleeping-room  of  the  parents  and  is  sus- 
picious of  having  growing  youths  in  rooms  separated  from 
the  parents’  room  by  thin  walls,  for  many  hysterias  and  ob- 
sessional neuroses,  many  developed  CEdipus  complexes  un- 
doubtedly go  back  to  overhearing  the  parents — aside  from  the 
actual  conflict.  Caresses  between  the  parents  in  front  of  the 
children  are  often  to  be  strictly  forbidden. 

Supposing  that  the  child  could  as  yet  have  no  incestuous 
wishes  in  the  literal  sense  of  the  word,  still,  sexual  excitements 
arise  which  can  be  continued  through  regression,  to  powerful 
life  determinants  and  to  actual  pathogenic  incestuous  phan- 
tasies. 

Very  much  to  be  warned  against  is  the  injudicious  treatment 
of  bad  sexual  habits.  The  most  dangerous  in  this  regard  is 
the  threat  of  amputation  of  the  genitalia.  In  many  severe 
neuroses,  we  find  a castration-complex.  I have  in  mind  not 
only  people  like  the  dementia  praecox  patient  mentioned  on 
page  123,  whom  the  castration  threat  led  into  anxiety  for  doves, 
legs  of  children  and  obsessional  hiding  of  the  nose,  but  also 
persons  who,  in  masochistic  desire,  practice  self-castration  for 
a lifetime  by  demeaning  themselves  in  general,  falling  into  mis- 
fortune, yielding  to  impotence,  becoming  incompetent  and 
giving  up  to  a tendency  to  suicide. 

A rational  treatment  of  masturbation  must  guard  against  the 
extremes  of  frivolity  on  the  one  hand  and  moral  fanaticism  on 


SEXUAL  EDUCATION 


563 


the  other.  The  first  of  these  errors  has  the  following  re- 
sults : 

1.  The  energies  which  in  abstinence  from  suitable  primary 
eroticism  should  be  applied  to  the  service  of  altruism,  friend- 
ship, art,  love  of  nature,  science,  religion  and  other  sublima- 
tions, are  uselessly  wasted. 

2.  The  excessive  onanist  develops  autoerotically,  relatively 
shuts  himself  off  from  the  surrounding  world  and  becomes  in- 
troverted. The  isolation  of  self  and  the  indifference  of  the 
extreme  onanist  toward  other  persons,  does  not  arise  usually 
from  the  fact  that  he  has  an  improper  secret  to  hide  but  from 
self -gratification  and  the  failure  of  all  erotic  longing  dependent 
on  this. 

3.  Freud  emphasizes  that  the  sexual  behavior  is  the  proto- 
type for  all  conduct  in  general.  If  the  onanist  becomes  ac- 
customed to  gaining  pleasure  by  the  cheap  wray  of  his  habit, 
instead  of  attaining  his  goal  by  the  difficult  path  of  suitable 
courtship,  he  becomes  an  unmanly  pleasure-seeker  who  in  the 
rest  of  his  life  also  avoids  the  serious  tasks  and  remains  a weak- 
willed,  infantile  person.* 

The  other  cardinal  error  consists  in  moral  fanaticism  which 
immeasurably  exaggerates  the  injurious  effects  of  masturbation 
and  combats  it  with  terrible  threats.  How  many  boys  have 
been  driven  by  that  kind  of  generally  dangerous  writings  into 
severe  neurosis,  indeed  into  suicide ! A pamphlet  of  Pastor  N. 
Hauri,  widely  circulated  in  Switzerland,  asserts  for  example : 
“When  a young  man  secretly  does  all  kinds  of  things  whereby 
he  stains  his  body,  his  health  also  suffers  grievous  injury.  He 
becomes  tired  and  sleepy,  his  mind  is  weakened,  he  loses  all 
elasticity  and  power  of  will.  Ever  less  can  he  resist  the  evil 
pleasure.  Step  by  step  his  evil  thoughts  pursue  him  to  ruin. 
He  loses  the  joy  of  work.  He  becomes  in  appearance  and 
behavior  like  an  old  man  and  finally  any  disease  may  get  him 
which  he  would  otherwise  have  easily  withstood  and  carries 
him  off  in  his  early  years.  How  many  a young  man  has  already 

•Freud,  2d  Diskuss.  der  Wiener  psa.  Vereinigung.  Wiesbaden  1912, 
p.  13S.  Hitselimann,  Freuds  Neurosenlehre,  p.  18  f. 


564 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


sunk  into  an  early  grave  in  this  way  and  others  have  become 
miserable  and  sickly  or  blue  and  melancholy.  ’ ’ * 

He  who  has  seen  the  misery  of  masturbators  who  in  hot 
combat  were  unable  to  master  their  sexual  instinct,  shudders 
at  the  thought  of  the  devastation  which  such  awful  prophecies 
must  have  caused.  Hauri’s  utterances  are  all  the  more  to  be 
regretted  since  according  to  the  testimony  of  every  experienced 
educator  and  physician,  the  hints  given  by  him  do  not  by  far 
suffice  for  most  masturbators  to  find  salvation  from  their  dif- 
ficulty. Warning  against  evil  thoughts,  improper  books,  bad 
company,  idleness,  nocturnal  revelry,  intemperance,  untrue 
assertions  over  the  necessity  for  sexual  activity,  admonition  to 
hardening  and  pious  Christian  conduct — more  than  these 
platitudes,  Hauri  does  not  know  how  to  give! — help  only  a 
small  part  of  those  in  need.  The  rest,  who  do  not  know  how  to 
help  themselves  against  the  enemy,  Hauri  treats  with  terrible 
threats  which  appear  so  much  the  more  ugly  and  distorted 
since,  according  to  the  assurances  of  the  best-informed  physi- 
cians, over  ninety  per  cent,  of  all  youths  have  practised  mas- 
turbation. We  saw  that  very  often  a neurosis  broke  out  when 
onanism  was  discontinued  (76,  101,  409,  etc.).  And  should 
we  hurl  ourselves  with  brutal  threats  upon  the  boys  and  girls  ? 
A morally  earnest  educator  should  not  yield  himself  to  such 
doubtful  services  as  are  urged  by  Hauri  out  of  ignorance. 

The  conscientious  educator  clings  to  the  facts.  Now  it  is  to 
be  admitted  that  the  injuriousness  of  masturbation  is  not  esti- 
mated alike  by  all.  The  modem  psychiatrists  and  neurologists 
consider  the  physical  effects  of  masturbation  as  fairly  negli- 
gible. Ziehen  thinks  that  at  the  most,  excessive  onanism  may 
contribute  in  certain  cases  to  the  origin  of  psychoses,  Aschaff- 
enburg  is  of  the  opinion  that  nervous  disturbances  either  do 
not,  or  at  least  rarely,  arise  from  onanism,  f Further,  the 

* N.  Hauri,  Eine  Konfirmanden-Stunde  iiber  das  7.  Gebot.  4.  St. 
Gallen,  1910,  p.  6. 

f Aschaffenburg,  Die  Beziehungen  des  sex.  Lebens  zur  Entstehung 
von  Nerven-  u.  Geisteskrankheiten.  Munch,  med.  Wochenschr.  1906, 
No.  37. 


TREATMENT  OF  MASTURBATION 


565 


opinions  of  psychoanalysts  are  divided.  Stekel  represents  the 
view  that  onanism  is  entirely  harmless.*  He  reports  of  a man 
of  forty-one  years  who  had  practiced  onanism  for  twenty-five 
years  from  once  a day  to  six  times  a day  and  still  remained 
healthy.  Another  man  well  along  in  the  forties,  masturbated 
daily  and  besides  practiced  normal  coitus  daily  with  extra- 
ordinary potency.  Nevertheless,  there  are  observations  op- 
posed to  these  which  we  have  mentioned. 

How  shall  we  approach  the  evil?  Not  with  a universal  re- 
ceipt, with  uniform  suggestions,  to  invoke  heaven  and  hell. 
I admit  that  Hauri’s  prescription  will  banish  the  symptom  in 
very  mild  cases.  But  there  often  arise  along  with  this  result, 
bad  after-effects,  unhealthy  piousness,  emotional  troubles,  etc. 

We  should  investigate  each  individual  case.  There  is  a 
large  number  of  forms  of  masturbation.  Often,  it  is  joined  to 
obsessional  ideas,  often,  it  forms  a compensation  for  homo- 
sexuality, often,  it  is  a symptom  of  shutting-off  from  humanity 
or  from  the  female  sex,  often,  the  expression  of  a death-wish, 
etc. 

If  it  is  a case  of  decided  pathological  compulsion,  which  is 
very  often  the  case,  all  warning  and  threatening  admonition 
only  strengthens  the  trouble.  All  pedanalysts  have  observed 
that  the  obsession  becomes  just  so  much  the  stronger,  the 
stronger  the  affects  are  which  are  directed  to  combatting  it. 
According  to  the  law  of  compensation,  a greater  value  must  be 
created  for  the  person  struggling  against  the  habit,  transfer- 
ence, friendship,  hope  of  winning  a pure,  joy-bringing  wife, 
close  union  with  religious  forces,  etc.  These  compensations 
serve  as  diversion  when,  by  appropriate  and  friendly  advice,  the 
counter-will  against  the  evil  habit  blocks  up  the  previously 
exercised  instinctive  function.  Already,  in  the  fact  that  one 
withdraws  the  overemphasis  from  the  habit,  does  one  strengthen 
the  power  for  freedom.  Hence  it  is  not  advisable  to  pledge 
the  youth  to  give  up  his  sin ; all  the  less  is  it  advisable  to  de- 
mand peremptorily  immediate  total  abstinence. 

Where  a strong  network  of  complexes  exists,  the  prevention 

* Stekel,  Eine  Gegenkritik.  Zbl.  Ill,  p.  250. 


566 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


of  the  peripheral  action  only  causes  exaggerated  phantasies. 
And  certainly  the  purely  mental  masturbation,  with  its  in- 
tensive demands  on  the  emotions,  is  at  least  as  injurious  for 
body  and  mind  as  the  physical  form,  especially  since  it  has  not, 
like  the  latter,  a momentary  release. 

If  the  intensive  onanism  is  thus,  as  is  very  often  the  case, 
a manifestation,  I consider  psychoanalysis  as  indispensable  if 
the  youth  is  to  be  freed.  There  also,  I avoid  the  pedanalysis  so 
long  as  I can  get  along  with  simpler  methods.  In  all  severe 
cases,  however,  this  is  not  possible.  In  the  analysis,  one  may 
attempt  to  get  along  with*  a symptomatic  method.  One  may 
explore  the  accompanying  phantasies  according  to  their  de- 
pendence on  the  past  and  their  relation  to  the  future.  I gave 
an  example  on  page  266. 

Another  instance  may  be  added : A sixteen-year-old  candi-  * 
date  for  confirmation  confided  to  me  that  he  had  suffered  from 
melancholia  for  a year.  His  dreams  betrayed  that  he  wished 
his  parents  dead.  Only  after  weeks,  did  he  acknowledge  daily 
masturbation  which  was  preceded  by  the  stereotyped  idea  that 
a boy,  or  more  rarely,  his  sister,  was  spanked  on  the  buttocks. 
The  habit  was  of  about  two  years’  standing.  About  that 
length  of  time,  he  had  suffered  from  attacks  of  blushing  and 
pains  in  his  abdomen.  The  onanism  was  performed  by  a climb- 
ing exercise  in  the  gymnasium  hour.  Some  weeks  later,  the 
youth,  during  the  school  recess,  rubbed  his  thighs  together 
under  the  desk  in  mastubatory  manner  when  a boy  beside  him 
was  beaten  on  the  buttocks.  The  obsessing  idea  began  at  once. 

Naturally,  the  school  experience  revived  earlier  episodes. 
The  earliest  was  an  experience  at  play  in  the  fourth  or  fifth 
year : In  the  hall  of  his  home,  a wall  had  been  marked  with  a 
pencil  by  an  unknown  person.  The  neighbor  accused  our 
patient ’s  sister  of  having  done  this.  The  latter,  however,  took 
the  blame  on  himself,  in  no  way,  however,  to  save  the  sister. 
Since  no  other  reason  was  apparent,  I surmise  that  he  yielded 
to  a masochistic  impulse.  Soon,  the  false  self-accusation  dis- 
turbed him.  The  sister  accused  the  brother  but  found  no 


TREATMENT  OF  PERVERSIONS 


567 


credence  and  received  blows  on  the  buttocks,  whereupon  the 
brother,  as  he  clearly  remembers,  felt  voluptuous  pleasure, 
while  he  had  witnessed  other  chastisement  without  sexual  feel- 
ing ; further,  a feeling  of  guilt  set  in.  Previously,  he  had  felt 
sexual  excitement,  when  he  himself  was  spanked  on  the  but- 
tocks. Jn  later  years,  the  sadistic  emotion  occurred  only  when 
one  of  his  comrades  was  whipped  because  he  had  done  him  an 
injustice. 

Thus,  the  sadistic  component  was  only  stimulated  to  con- 
scious emotional  expressions  when  hate  was  active.  Hate  in  its 
turn  plainly  appeared  in  our  ease  as  repressed  incestuous  love. 
In  it,  lay  also  the  instinctive  force  for  obsession  and  masturba- 
tion. The  pedanalytic  influence  easily  succeeded.  As  pleas- 
ant compensation,  there  came  besides  the  increased  joy  in  life 
and  work,  a favorable  relation  to  the  sister  in  place  of  the 
previous  condition  of  strife. 

Usually,  one  must  employ  a more  elaborate  analysis  of  re- 
sistances and  seek  to  penetrate  the  mind  without  any  kind  of 
consideration  for  the  special  symptom.  In  such  cases,  mastur- 
bation is  a subordinate  trace  of  the  mental  trouble  which  causes, 
outside  of  this  one  symptom,  a number  of  far  more  dangerous 
disturbances  of  the  moral  life.  Thus  we  see  the  special  prob- 
lem in  its  great  connection  to  an  ethical  reorganization  in 
general,  and  therewith  withdraw  from  it  the  all  too  strong  in- 
vestment of  the  mental  life  of  our  pupils.  The  sexual  education 
can  be  properly  carried  on  only  in  the  framework  of  the  com- 
plete education. 

The  treatment  of  perversities  must  proceed  analytically  with 
the  same  gentleness. 

An  important  part  of  the  pedagogic  work  discussed  here 
consists  in  sexual  enlightenment.  It  is  recommended  by  many 
facts,  opposed  by  nothing  worthy  of  consideration.  If  the 
correct  instruction  is  omitted,  the  following  dangers  are  en- 
countered, to  which  we  have  seen  many  children  succumb  and 
from  which  we  have  seen  many  grievous  injuries. 

1.  If  the  child  is  not  instructed  from  authoritative  side,  the 


568 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


street  takes  up  the  task,  often  in  the  dirtiest  form.*  That 
which  should  be  the  object  of  reverence  is  painted  as  ugly  and 
subjected  to  obscene  jests.  Thus  the  sexual  life  becomes  a 
priori  something  vulgar  and  on  the  parents  falls  a blemish 
which  allows  the  mother  to  appear  in  dreams  and  neurotic 
acts  (obsessional  love  for  prostitutes,  Don  Juanism)  as  pros- 
titute, the  father  as  libertine.  Further  effects  are  often  and 
unconquerable  disgust  for  sexuality,  “frigidity,”  loss  of  love 
and  many  other  neurotic  pathological  phenomena  which  are 
suited  to  ruin  a human  life. 

2.  If  the  correct  enlightenment  is  omitted,  false  childish 
phantasies  appear  in  its  place,  often  with  sadistic  impreg- 
nation- and  birth-theories  connected  with  perverse  pro- 
cedures, the  results  of  which  appear  later  in  disease  and  per- 
versity. 

3.  The  child  whose  thirst  for  knowledge  is  not  gratified  by 
the  parents  or  is  put  off  by  symbolical  stories,  loses  confidence 
in  them.f 

4.  His  whole  life  becomes  imbued  with  obsessional  brood- 
ing t or  inversely,  he  may  lose  the  craving  for  knowledge. 

For  giving  the  enlightenment,  Freud  gives  the  excellent 
advice:  “It  happens  that  the  children  never  originate  the 
idea  that  one  would  make  for  them  a mystery  out  of  the  facts 
of  the  sexual  life  more  than  of  anything  else  which  is  accessible 
to  their  understanding.  And  in  order  to  attain  this  end,  it  is 
necessary  that  sexual  matters  should  be  treated  from  the  be- 
ginning in  the  same  manner  as  other  subjects  of  knowledge. 
In  particular,  it  is  the  task  of  the  school  not  to  omit  to  men- 
tion sexual  affairs,  to  give  the  great  facts  of  reproduction  in  in- 
struction concerning  the  animal  kingdom  in  their  proper  sig- 
nificance and  at  the  same  time,  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  man 
shares  all  the  essentials  of  his  organization  with  the  higher 

* Compare  my  presidental  address  as  chairman  of  the  Kantonalen 
ztirich.  Pfarrergesellschaft  ( Verhandlungen  d.  asket.  Ges.  1906,  pp. 
33-43. 

f Jnng,  Konflikte  der  kindl.  .Seele.  Jahrb.  II,  p.  39. 

t Freud,  Zur  sex.  Aufklarung  der  Kinder.  Kl.  Schr.  II,  p.  156, 
Leonardo,  p.  14. 


MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  569 


animals.”*  Freud  adds:  “The  curiosity  of  the  child  will 
never  reach  a high  grade  if  it  finds  satisfaction  corresponding 
to  each  stage  of  life.  The  enlightenment  concerning  the 
specific  human  relations  of  the  sexual  life  and  the  reference  to 
the  social  importance  of  the  same  should  be  added  at  the  close 
of  the  instruction  in  the  folk  primary  school  and  before  the 
entrance  into  the  intermediate  school,  thus  not  later  than  at  the 
age  of  ten  years.  Finally  the  time  of  confirmation  would  be 
suited,  as  no  other,  to  explain  to  the  child  already  enlightened 
concerning  all  the  physical  matters,  the  moral  obligations  which 
are  connected  with  the  exercise  of  the  instinct.  Such  a 
graduated,  progressive  enlightenment  concerning  the  sexual 
life,  actually  interrupted  at  no  time,  for  which  the  school 
assumes  the  initiative,  seems  to  me  the  only  one  which  takes 
account  of  the  development  of  the  child  and  hence,  for- 
tunately, avoids  the  dangers  at  hand.”  t I might  only  add  to 
what  Freud  has  said  that  also  from  the  beginning,  the  moral 
side  of  reproduction,  the  ethical  bond  between  parents  and 
child,  can  be  emphasized  and  hence  should  be. 

7.  The  Moral  and  Religious  Education 

Even  though  psychoanalysis  as  purely  a method  of  explora- 
tion, as  we  have  perceived,  may  be  utilized  in  the  service  of  any 
moral  or  immoral,  religious  or  irreligious  purpose,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  mightily  assists  a healthy  moral  and  religious  edu- 
cation. 


(a)  the  moral  education 

The  pedanalysis  sets  up  as  pedagogic  ideal  for  us  the  per- 
sonality fully  developed  in  its  proper  individuality,  hence  one 
that  is  also  socially  effective.  The  personality  ideal  in  the  sense 
of  the  demand  for  a human  organization  realizing  the  com- 
mands of  its  own  nature,  inwardly  closed,  emotionally  rich,  has 
kept  constantly  appearing  before  our  eyes  in  the  course  of  our 
investigation.  We  recognized  how  much  morbid  crippling 
proceeded  from  the  pedagogic  violence  to  the  individual  neces- 

• Kl.  Schriften  II,  p.  157.  t Same,  p.  158. 


570 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


sities  of  life.  No  psychology  and  no  pedagogy  ever  proved 
with  such  shocking  facts  the  intensity  and  extent  of  the  grave 
offence  which  is  committed  by  the  pedagogy  of  the  press  and 
pattern,  the  pedagogy  of  educational  egoism  and  short- 
sightedness. 

We  have  demonstrated  further  that  human  happiness  and 
human  power  are  dependent  in  the  first  place  on  the  relations 
to  fellowmen,  first  of  all  to  father  and  mother  and  their 
respective  representatives,  further  upon  the  capability  to  sub- 
limate the  primary  claims  of  instinct  in  the  highest  fields  of 
the  moral  life.  In  so  doing,  it  was  shown  that  the  finding  of  an 
object  of  love  belonged  to  the  most  important  tasks  of  life,  be- 
cause without  this,  an  introversion  sets  in,  which,  when  it 
progresses  too  far,  withdraws  the  libido  from  all  reality  and 
drives  it  into  unproductive  phantasies,  anxiety,  pessimism 
hostile  to  life,  distaste  for  life,  indeed  into  severe  neurosis  and 
psychosis.  The  art  of  proper,  morally  superior,  loving  becomes 
thus  the  substance  of  the  art  of  living.  But  in  contrast  to 
sensual  indulgence  and  autistic  sentimentality  which  only 
testify  to  internal  incapacity  for  love,  we  recognized  the  pro- 
ductive love  which  masters  reality  with  the  maximal  develop- 
ment of  power  and  adapts  itself  to  it,  as  the  highest  moral  im- 
perative in  which  duty  and  capacity  are  united.  Self-love 
without  love  for  neighbors,  the  absolute  egoism,  we  perceived 
to  be  a force  hostile  to  self  and  destructive  to  self.  Thus  were 
we  compelled  to  postulate  the  inwardness  of  the  mind,  but  of 
the  mind  lighted  with  love  for  one’s  fellows,  in  the  name  of 
mental  health. 

We  were  also  forced  to  the  perception  that  the  measure  of 
the  realization  of  the  ethical  ideal  is  dependent  on  the  peculiar- 
ity of  each  individual  and  that  we  should  not  wish  to  exact  by 
external  pressure  the  same  perfection  from  all. 

The  pedagogic  ideal  recommended  by  psychoanalysis  is  not 
new  but  new  and  impressive  in  its  foundation. 

Further,  the  means  of  education  of  the  psychoanalyst  are  in 
good  part  new.  We  too  utilize  the  invitation,  we  desire  an 
achievement  corresponding  to  the  individual  strength.  But  we 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 


571 


see  that  the  education  of  to-day  is  guilty  of  an  immense  waste 
of  energy.  Most  pupils  are  encumbered  with  deplorable  re- 
pressions and  fixations,  the  overcoming  of  which  consumes  a 
large  part  of  the  mental  energy.  To  these  carriers  of  ballast, 
belongs  the  army  of  neurotics  as  also  the  great  part  of  healthy 
individuals.  No  one  comes  through  life  entirely  free  from  such 
injurious  burdens.  Further,  no  one  thinks  of  excluding  from 
the  world  all  complex-formation.  Everyone  must  and  should 
bear  a certain  amount  of  repression  and  fixation.  Yet  not  too 
much ! Otherwise  the  energy  disposable  for  execution  of  pro- 
ductive performances  and  for  the  bearing  of  unavoidable  and 
healthy  troubles  of  life  will  be  reduced.  Sensible,  conscious 
control  and  guidance  of  instinct,  in  place  of  repression  of  in- 
stinct, is  the  formal  analytic  principle  of  the  moral  education. 
Only  thereby  do  we  guard  against  autistic  squandering  of 
libido  and  gain  a strong,  free,  work-enjoying  race.  Only 
thereby  do  we  bring  about  that  state  of  mind,  from  which  alone, 
the  highest  mental  achievements  proceed. 

(b)  the  religious  education 

The  pedanalysis  shows  us  religion  from  the  viewpoint  of 
psychology  and  biology  as  well  as  from  that  of  individual  and 
social  hygiene. 

In  every  religion,  we  find  unquestionable  sexual  forces  in- 
vested, in  the  Christian  religion,  sublimated  sexuality.  Yet 
we  have  already  heard  (^12)  how  false  it  would  be  to  con- 
sider -the  evangelic  ‘piety  simply  as  sublimated  sexuality. 
Much  rather,  the  results  of  philosophical  thought  are  derived 
from  the  thinking  directed  by  the  reality  principle,  as  well  as 
historical  knowledge,  ethical,  esthetic  and  other  functions  not 
to  be  exhaustively  interpreted  from  the  pure  libido-movement 
contained  in  it.  That  whiqh  sharply  differentiates  the  Chris- 
tian religion  from  ievery  other,  is  a peculiar  diversion  of  the 
libido  into  three  channels : love  for  God,  love  for  fellowmen 
and  love  foh  self.  -Jesus  enunciates  as  chief  command — better, 
as  principle  of  his  teaching,  the  formula:  “Thou  shalt  love 
the  Lord  thy  God  with  thy  whole  heart  and  thy  neighbor  as 


572 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


thyself.”  (Mat.  xxii,  37-39;  Mark  xii,  30  f;  Luke  x,  27). 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  pedanalysis,  I consider  this  prin- 
ciple as  positively  perfect.  Love  is  thereby  recognized  and 
encouraged,  and  indeed  the  maximal  activity  of  love,  while 
other  religions,  in  part  prohibit  love  (Buddhism),  in  part  dis- 
regard it  (Parusism),  in  part  replace  it  with  substitutes. 
Thus,  with  Jesus,  introversion  is  happily  avoided  and  the  libido 
saved  for  reality,  morality  and  culture. 

From  the  pedanalytic  viewpoint,  the  self-love  is  of  high  value 
against  suicidal  tendencies  (compare  Saint  Elizabeth)  and 
masochistic  pleasures.  Such  ones  were  ever  much  beloved: 
Macarius,  in  order  to  escape  the  temptation  of  fornication, 
placed  himself  entirely  naked  in  a swamp  and  allowed  himself 
to  be  tormented  by  mosquitoes  until  he  looked  like  a leper  and 
could  be  recognized  only  by  his  voice  (Lucius:  Die  Anfange 
des  Heiligenkults  i.  d.  christl.  Kirche,  363).  With  the  same 
intention,  “Ammonius  tortured  his  body  with  a fiery  iron  until 
he  was  entirely  covered  with  burns.  Benedict  of  Nursia 
danced  around  in  thorn  hedges  and  Evagrius  Ponticus  allowed 
his  flesh  to  freeze  during  a whole  night  spent  in  a fountain  in 
the  winter  time.”  (Same.)  The  pious  Christine  of  St.  Troud 
(1150-1224)  laid  herself  in  the  hot  oven,  fastened  herself  on 
the  wheel,  had  herself  racked  by  the  wheel  and  hung  on  the 
gallows  beside  the  dangling  corpse,  buried  herself  in  the  grave, 
suffered  from  the  obsession  which  is  transparent  in  sexual  sym- 
bolical sense  (page  94)  that  she  must  climb  roofs,  trees  and 
church  towers,  Margaretha  of  Ypern  (1216-1237)  after  the 
cessation  of  her  madness  for  men,  could  not  bear  the  presence 
of  a boy  but  was  engaged  to  Jesus,  Christine  Ebner  (1277- 
1356)  cut  a cross  in  the  skin  over  the  heart  region  and  tore  it  off, 
wept  weeks  at  a time  over  Jesus’  suffering  until  her  cheeks 
were  sore,  until,  after  two  years  of  horrible  self-torture,  she 
fell  into  sensual  visions,  in  which  she  felt  herself  embraced  by 
Jesus  and  conceived  a child  by  him.  Mechtild  of  Magdeburg 
(about  1212-1277?),  the  gifted  authoress,  felt  herself  sick  from 
passionate  love  for  the  Savior  and  advised  all  virgins  to  follow 
the  most  charming  of  all,  the  eighteen -year-old  Jesus,  that  he 


SENSUALITY  AND  MYSTICISM 


573 


might  embrace  them;  on  the  other  side,  however,  she  became 
gloomy  on  account  of  a harmless  laughing  or  a levity  , of  that 
kind  betrayed  to  no  one,  so  that  the  unhappy  nun  begged 
piteously  and  grieved  until  she  again  crept  into  the  kitchen 
“like  a whipped  dog.”  (The  last  four  examples  are  from 
“Mechtild  von  Magdeburg,  Das  fliessende  Licht  der  Gottheit” 
with  the  admirable  introduction  by  Mela  Escherich,  Berlin, 
1909.)  Heilborn  says  of  the  old  German  mystics:  “From 
antiquity,  even  with  the  pious  old  German  theosophists,  all  pre- 
sentiments, all  self-destructive,  lustful,  death-  and  heaven- 
seeking was  overgrown  with  the  over-excitement  of  sensuality 
and  sensual  phantasy  excesses.  Sensuality  and  mysticism  live 
in  and  by  one  another.  ’ ’ * 

Who  can  mistake  in  these  asceticisms  which  form  not  by  far 
the  most  ugly  effects  of  miscarried  sexual  repressions  within  the 
Catholic  piety,  the  victory  of  masochistic  instincts,  the  intoxi- 
cating, voluptuous  pleasure  from  maltreatment  of  one’s  own 
person?  Nietzsche  rightly  names  certain  forms  of  asceticism 
‘ ‘ a holy  form  of  debauchery.  ’ ’ f 

True  Christianity,  as  living  one ’s  life  in  the  highest  sense  of 
the  word,  in  contrast  to  this,  is  expressed  in  the  words  in  John 
xiv,  19 : “I  live,  ye  shall  live  also. ’ ’ 

Love  for  one ’s  neighbors  as  a main  stream  for  the  libido,  we 
saw  recommended  likewise  by  the  analysis.  If  the  libido  is 
not  so  guided,  there  arises  at  best  an  elevation  of  the  sexual  in- 
stinct yet  no  true  sublimation.  Many  a time,  the  dammed-up 
libido  has  broken  out  in  religion  as  active  cruelty.  What  per- 
son who  knows  even  a little  of  the  psychology  of  the  sexual  life, 
will  deny  that  the  Spanish  Inquisitor,  Petrus  Arbues,  canon- 
ized in  1867,  and  the  whole  great  army  of  similar  pious 
monsters,  fell  into  the  snares  of  sadism  and  in  deluded  zeal  for 
God,  performed  only  the  work  of  the  flesh,  of  ill-treated 
sexuality  ? The  history  of  the  Catholic  sainthood  affords  the 
analytic  pathography  an  inexhaustible  material  which  sub- 
stantiates the  interesting  statement  of  the  experienced  Fried- 

* E.  Heilborn,  Novalis,  der  Romantiker,  Berlin,  1901. 

f Nietzsche,  Z.  Genealogie  d.  Moral,  3rd  Part,  Paragraph  1. 


574; 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


rich  von  Hardenberg  (Novalis)  : “It  is  strange  that  the 
association  of  voluptuous  pleasure,  religion  and  cruelty  has  not 
long  ago  brought,  to  the  attention  of  men  the  intimate  relation- 
ship and  common  tendency  of  these.”  * Psychologically  con- 
sidered, this  assertion  is  absolutely  correct.  In  the  religion  of 
the  Israelites,  we  see  the  sexual  debauchery  proceed  to  the 
temple.  The  preprophetic  religion  of  Baal  allowed  father  and 
son  to  go  to  the  slaves  of  the  temple.  The  great  prophets,  as 
Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  Mieah  and  Jeremiah  on  the  contrary, 
favored  a transformation  of  the  libido  into  social  activity  and 
thus  created  the  first  important  social  religion  in  which  divine 
pleasure  was  made  dependent  on  the  preservation  of  social- 
ethical  sentiment.  Jesus  also  voiced  this  utilization  of  the 
libido,  but  still  more  decidedly,  in  that  he  even  preached  love 
for  enemies,  while  Islam  with  its  polygamy,  slavery  and  sensual 
hope  of  heaven,  clung  to  a mere  elevation  of  the  sexual  in- 
stinct. Jesus,  by  his  advocacy  of  a serving  love  and  preaching 
God ’s  kingdom  on  the  earth,  kept  religion  free  from  the  danger 
of  depreciating  the  present  time  by  displacing  the  center  of 
attention  into  the  future. 

The  love  of  God  is  recognized  not  less  by  the  analyst  as  a 
healthful  demand.  The  believer  flees  to  the  domain  of  the 
ideal,  to  the  heart  of  the  eternal  love,  when  life  disappoints  him 
and  fellowmen  treat  him  contemptuously  and  unjustly.  In  the 
divine  father-love,  he,  whose  longing  for  help,  for  ethical  salva- 
tion is  not  satisfied  by  the  surrounding  reality,  finds  an  asylum. 
In  the  love  for  the  Savior,  the  love-thirsty  soul,  which  finds  no 
comprehension  and  no  return  love  in  his  fellowmen,  is  re- 
freshed. The  titanic  drama  of  the  work  of  salvation  with  its 
immense  contrasts,  sin — grace,  human  depravity — Jesus’  con- 
quering love,  death — life,  affords  guilt-laden  souls  a source  of 
consolation,  the  sustaining  force  of  which,  the  irreligious  in- 
dividual can  scarcely  appreciate.  Further,  the  educated  per- 
son with  deeper  thinking  and  feeling,  who  bears  a mighty  de- 
sire for  the  reality  of  the  ideal,  will  again  and  again  long  for 

*Heilborn,  Novalis,  p.  161. 


FATHER-  AND  MOTHER-COMPLEXES  575 


God  as  the  substance  and  real  basis  of  the  ideal  and  submerge 
himself  in  Him  when  men  and  nature  (in  broadest  sense)  leave 
him  in  want. 

But  if  the  love  for  God  is  not  to  lead  to  fanatical  excess  of 
passion  of  plain  sexual  character,  it  must  be  accompanied,  as 
happened  in  the  teachings  of  J esug,  by  love  for  men  and  self. 
Otherwise,  it  will  develop  into  that  system  of  religious  orgies 
which  Margaretha  Ebner,  Zinzendorf  and  hundreds  of  other 
Christian  saints  portray,  J esus  enunciated  as  strongly  as  pos- 
sible the  love  for  neighbors  as  the  presupposition  of  all  true  love 
for  God : an  act  of  brotherly  love,  the  reconciliation,  is  for  him 
more  important  than  the  cultistic  performance  of  the  sacrifice 
(Mat.  v,  23,  24). 

Of  supreme  importance,  then,  is  the  elaboration  of  the  rela- 
tion to  the  father  by  Jesus.  With  wonderful  acuity,  he  solved 
the  attachment  by  sublimating  it.  We  have  mentioned  some 
of  the  places  in  which  Jesus  urged  the  separation  from  the 
father  as  he  personally  emancipated  himself  from  the  mother. 
The  postulate  of  sublimation  is  in  Matthew  xxiii,  9 : “ Thou 
shalt  call  no  one  on  earth,  father,  for  one  is  thy  father  who  is 
in  heaven.”  Thereby,  Jesus  has  relieved  the  harmful  fixa- 
tion and  broken  the  bonds  of  free  personal  development.*  He 
has,  however,  also  taken  into  account  the  need  for  paternal  pro- 
tection and  reciprocal  love. 

The  need  for  the  mother  is  given  less  consideration.  Jesus 
loved  his  real  mother  so  much  that  for  him  a heavenly  substitute 
was  superfluous.  The  Catholics  invested  Mary  and  the 
Church,  the  Protestants  likewise  the  Church  or  the  Holy  Ghost, 
with  mother-attributes. 

In  Jesus,  we  find  still  other  thoughts  highly  important  for 
the  pedanalyst.  He  unburdened  the  oppressed  soul.  By  abre- 
action and  forgiving  of  sins,  he  prepared  the  healing  of  neurotic 
infirmities  from  within  out.  Even  the  belief  that  those 

* Hebbel  relates  very  prettily  in  his  “Aufzeichnungen  aus  meinem 
Leben”  (chap.  5)  how  religion  helped  him  to  cut  the  mental  navel- 
string  which  had  previously  bound  him  exclusively  to  the  parents. 
(Stuttgart  and  Leipzig,  p.  582.) 


576 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


maladies  proceed  from  spirits,  draws  our  sympathy  as  psycho- 
logical adaptation,  only  metaphysically  it  is  false. 

Further,  Jesus  has  recognized  the  tranference  with  great 
keenness.  Hence- he  allows  himself  to  love  boundlessly.  Mat. 
xi,  28 : “Come  unto  me  all  ye  that  labor  and  are  heavy  laden, 
and  I will  give  you  rest. ’ ’ Mat.  x,  37 : “He  that  loveth  father 
or  mother  more  than  me  is  not. worthy  of  me.”  Still  he  does 
not  bind  the  believers  to  himself  but  points  them  to  the 
Heavenly  F ather,  to.' the  highest  religious  and  moral  autonomy 
of  the  child  of  God. 

And  besides  the  past  and  present  (abreaction  and  trans- 
ference), Jesus  takes  the  future  into  consideration,  instructing 
in  a powerful  conception  of  it. 

It  is,  therefore,  not  at  all  absurd  for  one  to  find  the  funda- 
mental characteristics  of  the  pedanalysis  marked  out  by  Jesus. 
Also  from  other  sides,  we  can  consider  him  as  crown  witness 
for  the  correctness  of  our  theory:  He  sets  free  the  love  ban- 
ished by  the  rule  of  law  from  the  Hebrew  religion  of  his  time 
and  guides  it  to  the  center  of  piety.  Now,  orthodoxy  and  cere- 
monialism also  cease.  The  prophets  with  their  social  preaching 
kept  the  libido  in  the  reality.  After"  the  Babylonian  exile, 
national  necessity  caused  enormous  repressions.  The  austere 
God  W’as  feared.  The  dammed-up  libido  fled,  exactly  as  in  the 
obsessional  neurotic  individual,  into  intellectual  achievements 
and  acts  difficult  of  execution,*  even  into  orthodoxy  and  cere- 
monialism. Exactly  as  Freud  heals  the  obsessional  neurotic 
individual  by  winning  back  the  love  and  affording  it  appro- 
priate realization,  so  does  Jesus.  He  taught  to  love  and 
thereby  destroyed  the  religious  obsessional  neurosis. 

A great  deal  more  might  be  said  concerning  the  relations  be- 
tween Jesus’  gospel  and  psychoanalysis.  It  is  enough  that  we 
find  in  him  the  piety  of  the  healthiest  and  most  profound 
thinker  of  men,  while  Paul  and  the  writings  of  John  represent 
the  piety  of  the  neurotic.  Hence  even  to-day  many  neurotic 
individuals  are  actually  most  drawn  to  the  latter  (neurotics 

* Freud,  Zwang9handlungen  u.  Religionsiibung.  Kl.  Schr.  II,  pp. 
122-131. 


RELIGION  AND  NEUROSIS 


577 


seek  one  another),  while  people  who  are  freer  from  complexes 
are  ordinarily  far  more  attracted  by  the  synoptic  piety. 

Catholicism  renewed  the  repressions  and  created  a new  obses- 
sional neurosis.  Dogma  and  sacrament  were  its  symptoms. 
Thereby,  a grandiose  symbolism  developed,  the  regressive  char- 
acter of  which  is  easily  perceived.  In  the  Catholic  Eucharist, 
the  eating  of  God  meets  us  as  in  the  eating  of  the  totem  animal, 
the  drinking  of  blood  in  the  Attis  mysteries,  etc.  The  life-ideal 
realized  in  monks  and  expressed  in  the  three  vows  of  poverty, 
obedience  and  chastity  contains  the  three  strongest  repressions 
and  renunciations:  the  renunciation  of  wealth,  self -independ- 
ence and  family.  Therewith,  the  strongest  instincts  of  sex  and 
ego  are  gagged.  For  the  libido,  there  is  left  only  the  flight 
into  the  future  life  if  it  is  to  escape  introversion.  The  father  is, 
in  the  persons  of  the  Pope  and  of  the  spiritual  superiors,  en- 
throned in  his  authority  and  exercises  this  authority  more 
strictly  than  any  other  kind  of  father.  The  three-in-one  God 
loses  the  personal  character  and  therewith  the  love-giving 
power.  The  obsessional  neurosis  was  unavoidable  since  love 
was  again  in  great  part  excluded. 

The  Reformation  wrought  a change  for  a short  time  but 
more  in  the  spirit  of  Paul  than  in  that  of  Jesus.  Love  was 
soon  banished  again  and  a Protestant  orthodoxy  and  exaggera- 
tion of  ceremony  set  in.  As  soon  as  love  again  succeeded 
pietism  as  the  nucleus  of  the  Christian  life,  the  fear  of  the 
letter  of  the  Bible,  ordinance  of  the  church  and  ceremony 
weakened. 

Thus  the  Freudian  theory  shines  brilliantly  in  the  mirror 
of  religious  history.  Concerning  this  phenomenon,  the  future 
will  have  much  more  to  say.  We  are  still  far  from  understand- 
ing thoroughly  the  infinitely  rich  symbolism  of  Christian  ideas 
and  customs.  But  we  know  that  thanks  to  Freud’s  investiga- 
tion, we  are  in  possession  of  the  key  wdiich  by  hard  and  earnest 
work  will  open  the  door  to  these  secret  chambers. 

We  already  understand  why  this  individual  must,  as  the 
result  of  his  complexes,  join  one  sect,  that  individual,  another 
sect,  and  each  find  boundless  satisfaction  in  his  choice.  We 


578 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


know  when  people  are  led  by  psychological  necessity  to  the 
Catholic  Church,  when  to  the  Salvation  Army,  when  to  the 
Mormons,  when  to  the  Adventists  and  feel  contented  there. 
We  understand  also  the  private  religions  and  rites  of  the  in- 
dividuals analyzed  by  us.  We  can  say  why  that  neurotic 
pastor’s  wife  prays  to  the  wind,  that  youth  to  the  fire,  that 
old  man  to  the  phallus,  secretly  as  the  highest  Godhead.  We 
understand  therefore  also  the  relative  necessity  and  healthful- 
ness of  sects  and  abstruse  private  religions  and  know  that  they 
are  not  a danger  to  the  churches  spiritualized  by  the  Gospel, 
even  though  many  disposed  individuals  can  certainly  be  led 
astray  by  them  to  life-impoverishing  narrowing  of  the  horizon, 
neurotic  autisticism  and  moral  poverty. 

That  false  religious  education  in  the  first  years  of  life,  or 
even  later,  can  inflict  grievous  injury,  should  by  no  means  be 
denied.  The  pedanalysis  warns  especially  against  the  follow- 
ing dangers : 

Religion  cannot  be  shown  merely  as  dry  theory,  but  should 
be  shown  as  an  experience.  It  should  “embrace  the  whole 
inner  man  so  that  we  make  him  fresher,  fuller  of  life,  more  joy- 
ful and  morally  stronger  by  our  religious  instruction.”  It 
should  “encourage  the  satisfaction  which  leads  to  noblest  deeds, 
the  heroic  pride.”  The  teacher  of  religion  should  help  the 
pupils  to  win  a personal  view  of  life  in  free  investigation.  He 
should  also  strengthen  by  historical  instruction  the  longing 
for  the  future  and  the  determination  to  fight  for  it.*  He 
should  create  the  living  contact  with  the  creative  force  which 
discloses  its  nature  in  the  ideal  and  sets  the  development  to 
the  realization  of  the  ideal.  God  should  appear  in  trusted  re- 
lation to  the  youth  as  loving  father,  friend,  protector,  giver  of 
moral,  liberating  commands  and  forgiveness.  Such  religion 
will  turn  the  libido  to  the  individual  and  common  good,  help 
to  prevent  the  neurosis  and  psychosis,  surround  life  with  a 
halo  and  attain  a high  degree  of  strength  for  the  real  duties 
of  life. 

* Compare  my  article : Religionapadag.  Neuland.  Eine  CJnters.  ii. 
d.  Erlebnis-  und  Arbeitsprinzip.  Zurich,  1909,  p.  6. 


VALUE  OF  CHRISTIAN  SYMBOLS 


579 


To  be  warned  against,  is  a piety  which  deadens  the  intel- 
lectual curiosity.  This  happens  when  one  kills  questions  by 
the  compulsion  of  dogmatic  tradition  or  does  away  with  the 
particular  explanation  of  empirical  phenomena  with  the 
phrase:  “This  has  God  created.”  Hoffding  rightly  says: 
“Religion  has  had  great  significance  for  the  development  of 
science  and  will  be  able  to  have  still  more  by  accentuating  the 
great  borderline  problems  and  fixing  the  conviction  that  there 
is  a center  and  that  it  should  be  the  highest  ideal  task  of  think- 
ing to  find  the  same.  ” * As  natural  science  can  determine  in  a 
painting  of  Bocklin’s  the  elasticity  and  composition  of  the 
colors,  the  botanical  variety  of  the  wood  or  canvas  on  which  it 
is  painted,  the  chemical  composition  of  the  pigments,  but  must 
be  supplemented  by  an  esthetic  method  of  consideration  which 
takes  into  account  the  meaning  of  the  picture,  so  also  is  the 
nature  investigation  to  be  perfected  by  a consideration  of  the 
value  of  the  laws  of  the  ethical  development  and  evolutionary 
tendency.  Only  the  religious  point  of  view  embraces  the  com- 
prehensive world  picture. 

Therein  the  religious  instruction  must  guard  against  abstract 
rationalization.  Psychoanalysis  shows  us  the  indispensability 
of  the  symbol.  In  the  old  symbols  of  the  Christian  religion, 
there  lurks  far  more  noble  content  than  the  theory  of  faith,  so 
miserably  established  psychologically,  will  allow  us  to  believe. 
Hence,  many  deep  and  free  religious  minds  find  far  more  spirit 
and  life  in  the  picture-language  of  the  Bible  than  in  the  aqua 
destillata  of  critically  purified  dogmatic  formulae. 

But  the  symbol  must  be  recognized  as  symbol.  Psycho- 
analysis has  clearly  shown  us  anew  the  right  of  absolutely  free 
investigation.  What  is  to  be  hoped  for,  is  a theory  of  faith 
which  understands  how  to  grasp  clearly  and  sharply  the  connec- 
tion between  the  religious  idea  and  the  unconscious.  To  this 
end,  tedious,  deep  investigations  of  living  piety  and  a compre- 
hensive view  of  life  will  be  necessary. 

We  have  already  transgressed  the  bounds  of  the  psycho- 
analysis given  us  by  Freud  which  everywhere  discloses  impos- 

* Hoffding,  Religionsphilosopliie,  p.  24. 


580 


THE  PSYCHOANALYTIC  METHOD 


ing  problems  in  psychology,  ethics,  esthetics,  metaphysics,  even 
though  the  solution  of  these  problems  presupposes  still  other 
methods  besides  itself.  My  task  consisted  only  in  showing  the 
pedagogue  what  wonderful  new  paths  were  open  to  him  if  he 
knew  how  to  use  the  pedanalysis.  Investigating,  healing  and 
protecting,  the  proper  professional  educator  will  garner  a rich 
harvest  as  soon  as  he  has  enriched  his  armamentarium  with  the 
new  educational  method  and  understands  how  to  apply  it  with 
skill.  To-day,  the  need  of  many  pupils  is  immeasurable  and 
the  danger  threatening  them  allows  a stormy  future  to  be  pre- 
dicted for  them.  On  the  other  hand,  an  enormous  amount  of 
pedagogic  talent  and  intelligence  lies  fallow.  May  there  not  be 
lacking  among  the  pedagogues  those  whose  conscience  will  drive 
them  in  pursuit  of  an  adjustment  and  who  will  put  themselves 
as  analysts  in  the  service  of  investigation  as  well  as  of  helping 
love ! The  field  is  white  for  the  harvest. 


INDEX 


Abreaction,  446 
Necessity  for,  447 
Goethe  and,  451 
Process  of,  451 
and  Unconscious,  454 
Abulia,  538 
Adler,  Alfred,  406 

Theory  of  Organic  Inferiority, 
172 

Pfister’s  Criticism  of,  139 
Theories  of  Character,  407 
Age  of  Subject  of  Psychoanalysis, 
519 

Aim  of  Psychoanalysis,  489 
Alcoholism  as  Neurotic  Compul- 
sion, 317 

Ambivalence  (Bleuler),  161 
Ambivalent  Instinctive  Tenden- 
cies, 163 
Ammonius,  572 
Amnesia,  220 
Analeroticism,  201 
Analysis,  Procedure  in,  429 
of  Healthy  Individuals,  529 
Anarchists  and  Father-Complex, 
540 

Anesthesia,  Hysterical,  176 
Angel-Makers,  37 

Angouleme,  Duchess  of,  Dream,  359 
Antipathy  for  People,  80,  196 
Anxiety  and  Sexuality,  82 
and  Sexual  Inhibition,  70 
Origin  of,  212 
Apis  Bull,  276 
Arrow  Symbol,  354 
Art  and  the  Unconscious,  388 
Analysis  of  Underlying  Mo- 
tives, 388 

Asceticism  in  Education,  554 
Aschaffenburg,  Treatment  of  Sex- 
ual Complex,  527 


Associations,  Accidental,  345 
External  and  Internal,  183 
Free,  343 

Association  Experiment,  181 
Asthenia,  181 
Asthma,  68 

Authority  and  Freedom,  554 
Autistic  Thinking,  303 
a Burden,  310 
Autoanalysis,  522 
Autoeroticism,  155 
Aversion  to  Work,  78 

Bashfulness,  Pathological,  266 
Bathing  Phobia,  72 
Bed-Wetting,  422 
Berner  Seminarbldtter,  13 
Binet,  4 

Bjornson,  Dream  in  “Arne,”  353 
Bleuler,  E.,  11 
on  Alcoholism,  317 
on  Autistic  Thinking,  303 
Blushing,  Pathological,  184 
Brother-Sister  Complex,  386 
Brothers  and  Sisters,  Relations 
between,  550 
Breuer,  Josef,  2,  6 
His  Famous  Patient,  4 
Buddhism  and  Christianity,  443 

Cartesius,  21,  43 
Castration-Complex,  123 
Catholic  Confessional,  453 
Catholic  Sainthood,  573 
Catholicism  and  Neurosis,  577 
Cathartic  Method,  6,  141 
Censor,  168 

Change  of  Communion  conditioned 
on  Complexes,  410 
Character  in  Psychoanalysis,  515 
Charcot,  J.  M.,  2 


581 


582 


INDEX 


Child,  Early  Training,  546 

Effect  of  too  much  Affection,  546 
Effect  of  too  little  Affection,  546 
Necessity  for  Preparation  for 
Separation  from  Parents,  549 
Childhood,  Importance  ox  Early 
Impressions,  113 
Chorea,  185 
Christianity,  true,  573 
Christian  Religion  and  Sexuality, 
571 

Christian  Science,  490 
Christine  Ebner,  57j2 
Christine  of  St.  Troud,  572 
Clucking  Symptom,  34 
Cockroaches,  Phobia  for,  103 
Compensation,  457 
Complex,  Concept  of,  151 
Indicators,  335 

Necessity  for  Psychoanalyst  to 
be  free  from,  516 
Molding  and  Remolding  of,  460 
Remolding,  Law  of,  463 
Composite  Formation,  245 
Conclusion  of  Psychoanalysis, 
510 

Condensation,  244 
Conflict,  Mental,  Outcomes  of,  448 
Consciousness,  Definitions  of,  22-25 
Constitution,  Valuation  of,  170 
Conversion,  Hysterical,  174 
Convulsive  Laughter,  181 
Convulsions,  Analysis  of,  190 
Cough,  Hysterical,  179 
Counsel  and  Command  in  Psycho- 
analysis, 505 
Cover-Memories,  224 
Cramp  in  Thigh,  126 
Crank,  Mental,  540 
Crown  of  Thorns,  36 
Cracking  of  Jaw,  Hysterical  Symp- 
tom, 271 

Cruelty  to  Animals,  77 
Cryptography,  371 
Cryptolalia,  368 

Daniel,  Interpretation  of  Dreams, 
351 

Davidson,  14 


Day-Dreams,  366 
Deafness,  Hysterical,  96 
Death- Wish  in  Dream,  267,  362 
Deception  by  Subject  of  Psycho- 
analysis, 45 

Degeneration  and  Hysteria,  48 
D§jh  Vu,  228 
Delboeuf,  4 

Dementia,  Priecox,  Symbolized  in 
Picture,  399 

Devil,  Hallucination  of,  38 
Dislocation,  444 
Disjection,  254 
Dispositions  and  Moods,  328 
Don  Juanism,  126,  329,  546 
Dream,  Estimation  of,  349 
Via  Regia  to  Unconscious,  349 
In  Bible,  350 
Poet’s  Estimation  of,  351 
Direct  Speech  in,  363 
Distortion  after  Waking,  363 
Logic  of,  364 
Death-Wishes  in,  362 
Persistence  of  Belief  in  Reality 
of  Content  of,  363 
Physical  Stimuli  as  Instigators 
of,  361 

Wishfulfillment  in,  368,  416 
Dreams  of  Balloon  Journey,  296 
of  Duchess  of  Angouleme,  359 
of  Furniture  Vans,  355 
of  Negroes,  356 
of  Persecution,  366 
of  Railroad  Station,  358 
Dream  Analysis,  430 
Detailed  Description  of,  432 
Dream  Interpretation,  361 
When  Possible,  361 
In  Practice,  501 
Dream-Work,  355 
Dubois,  Paul,  439 

Criticism  of  his  Method,  440 
and  Freud,  Comparison  of 
Methods,  443 

Duration  of  Psychoanalytic  Treat- 
ment, 507 
Durr,  E.,  22,  544 

Edema,  Hysterical,  177 


INDEX 


583 


Education,  Moral,  569 
Religious,  571 
Sexual,  562 

and  Therapy,  Reciprocal  Rela- 
tion of,  vi 

Egmont’s  Dream,  353 
Ego  Instincts,  140 
Egoists  and  Altruists,  256 
Einfuhlung,  262 
Ekkehard,  34 

Emotion,  Dynamics  of,  206 
Loss  of,  193 
Psychology  of,  51 
Repressed,  198 
Erythromania,  184 
Ethical  Imperative  as  Defence 
Process,  404 

Examination-Anxiety,  538 

Exteriorization,  264 

Eye  as  Erogenous  Organ,  160 

Falsification  of  Memory,  432 
Fanatics,  540 

Fanaticism  as  Reaction  Forma- 
tion, 321 

Moral  Effects  of  on  Boys,  563 
Father-Image,  147 
Fehlhandlungen,  383 
Ferenczi,  Early  Antagonism  to 
Freud,  64 
on,  Alcoholism,  318 
on  Neurotic  Identification,  264 
Fetichism,  Clothes,  331 
Folk  Superstition  and  Symbol- 
ism, 277 

Foreconscious,  47,  150 
Forgetting,  Analysis  of,  222 
Fortmiiller,  Karl,  “Psychoanalyse 
und  Ethik,”  404 
Franz  J.,  Case  of,  388 
Frei,  Jakob,  387 
Freud,  Early  Publications,  2 
Analysis  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
407 

Estimation  of  Infantile  Impres- 
sion, 113 

Formulations  compared  with 
Jung’s,  107-108 


Freud, 

Sexual  Theory,  60,  Criticism  of, 
64 

Work  with  Breuer,  6 
Writings,  9-11 
on  Alcoholism,  317 
on  Hysterical  Indentification,  272 
on  Parent-Complex,  239 
on  Wishfulfillment  in  Dream, 
416 

Summarizes  Psychology  of  Art- 
ist, 388 

Two  Principles  of  Psychic  Ac- 
tivity, 302 

Freud’s  Psychoanalysis  compared 
with  Dubois’  Suggestion  Meth- 
od, 443 

Freudian  Theory  and  Religious 
History,  577 

Fixation  upon  Parents,  197 
Fiirst,  Emma,  Investigations  of 
Reaction-Types,  342 

Gestures,  Obsessional,  538 
Glossolalia,  Religious,  231 
Goethe,  Heroes  of,  401 
Graf,  Max,  Monograph  on  Richard 
Wagner,  120 
Grillparzer,  120 
Complexes  of,  401 
Poem  “Der  Bann,”  308 
Guilt,  Consciousness  of,  101,  213 

Haberlin,  P.,  13 
Hall,  G.  Stanley,  ix,  14 
Hallucination,  Analysis  of,  37-39 
During  Analysis,  467 
of  God,  247 

Hamlet,  Analysis  of,  402 
Handwriting,  Analysis  of,  377 
Happiness  and  Proper  Invest- 
ment of  Libido,  557 
Harlequin,  An  Unhappy  Person, 
322 

Hate,  332 
Repressed,  198 
and  Reconciliation,  462 
Hauri,  Pastor  N.,  Bad  Treatment 
of  Masturbation,  563 


584 


INDEX 


Hebbel,  Friedrich,  Estimation  of 
Childhood  Impressions,  115 
Unconscious  in  Poetic  Produc- 
tion, 403 
on  Dreams,  352 

Quotation  from  “Genoveva,”  239 
Heilborn,  E.,  on  German  Mystics, 
573 

Heine,  Example  of  Condensation, 
250 

“Heperos,”  Quotation  from,  116 
Heterosexuality,  161 
Hoch,  August,  14 
Hoffding,  29 
Homosexuality,  161,  202 
Housework,  Distaste  for,  214 
Hypermnesia,  229 
Hypnosis,  437 

Hypnoid  Hallucinations,  241 
Hypnotic  Treatment,  v 
Hysteria,  Symptomatology,  174 
Symptoms  with  Organic  Basis, 
180 

Symptoms  Misunderstood,  492 
Ibsen,  386 

Identification  and  Projection,  260 
in  Hallucination,  40 
with  Mother,  295 
Imago,  12 

Impotence,  Psychic,  124 
Incestuous  Wishes  in  Symbols,  301 
Infantile  Experiences,  After-ef- 
fects of,  269 

Infantile  Impressions,  114,  118 
Content  of,  120 
Infantilism  and  Neurosis,  244 
Instinct,  Inhibition  of,  192 
Transposition  of,  216 
Intellectual  Development  influ- 
enced by  Complexes,  139 
Intellectualistic  Theories,  49 
International  Zeitschrift  fiir  arzt- 
liche  Psychoanalyse,  12 
Interpretation  of  Dreams  in  Prac- 
tice, 501 

Interpretation  of  Symbols,  282 
Introversions,  Mild,  539 
Introverted  Individual,  557 


Ishtar,  276 
Itching,  34 

Jahrbuch  fiir  Psychoanalyse,  11 
Janet,  Pierre,  Study  of  Hysteria,  2 
Case  of  Marie,  3 
Jelliffe,  Smith  Ely,  12,  14 
Jesus,  Represents  Healthy  Piety, 
576 

Value  of  Teaching  for  Educa- 
tor, 575 

Estimation  of  Love,  574 
and  Nicodemus,  Jung’s  Interpre- 
tation, 299 
Johner,  Th.,  13 
Jones,  Ernest,  14 

Analysis  of  Hamlet,  402 
Jung,  C.  G.,  11 

on  Father-Complex,  387 
on  Infantile  Tendencies,  121 
on  Religion,  473 
Theory  of  Symbolism  criticised, 
300 

Theory  of  Mental  Conflict  caus- 
ing Neurosis,  107 
Jung-Stilling  and  Hysteria,  452 

Kekule,  Derivation  of  Benzol  For- 
mula, 240 
Keller,  Adolf,  13 
“Klein  Eyolf,”  386 
Kleptomania,  76 

Kronfeld,  Arthur,  Criticism  of 
Psychoanalysis,  18 
Refutation,  44 
Criticism  of  Freud,  210 

Lassitude,  181 

Laughing,  Obsessional,  83,  538 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Freud’s  Mono- 
graph on  118,  407 
Libido,  Definition,  155 
Concept  of,  166 
Symbol,  293 
Life-Force,  167 

Life  Problems  and  Psychoanalysis, 
477 

Lindner  of  Budapest,  155 
Lipps,  Th.,  21,  29 
Lord’s  Supper,  276 


INDEX 


585 


Loss  of  Affection,  Analysis  of,  295 
Loss  of  Love,  94,  111 
Lotus  Flower  as  Symbol,  276 
Love,  329 

for  God  and  for  Man,  574 
Incapacity  for,  330 
Loss  of,  194,  197 
and  Sexuality,  80 
Love-Death,  foot-note,  354 
Liithi,  Adolf,  13 


Macarius,  572 

Madonna,  Hysterical  Adoration  of, 
136 

Maeder,  Alfons,  Dream  Theory, 
425 

Exteriorization,  264 
Education  of  Children,  557 
Maeder,  Alfons  and  Otto  Mensen- 
dieck  on  Influence  of  Com- 
plexes, 539 

on  Intellectual  Performances, 
539 

Manifestation,  Definition  of,  173 
as  Attempt  at  Healing,  425 
Biological  Meaning  of,  424 
Content  of,  258 
Meaning  of,  416 
in  Conduct  of  Life,  385 
Pleasure  and  Pain  in,  420 
Sexual  Basis  of,  423 
Manifestation- Acts,  376 
Marcinowskv  on  Sadism,  162 
Margaretha  Ebner,  270,  420 
Margaretha  of  Ypern,  572 
Marie,  Janet’s  Hysterical  Patient, 
3 

Masochism,  132,  156 
Masturbation,  155 
Conditioned  on  Complexes,  566 
Treatment  of,  563-565 
Materialism,  387 
Messmer,  O.,  13,  544 
Meumann,  E.,  13 

Theories  of  Volition,  49,  50 
Meyer,  Adolf,  14 
Meyer,  K.  F.,  402 
Mechtild  of  Magdeburg,  572 


Medical  Conditions  not  to  be  An- 
alyzed by  Pedagogues,  522 
Melancholia,  98,  126 
in  Pupils,  539 
Melody,  Obsessing,  345 
Mental  Abnormalities  and  Educa- 
tor, vii 

Migraine  as  Hysterical  Symptom, 

207 

in  Temples,  35 
Mistakes  in  Speech,  383 
Mobius,  191 

Moral  Defectives,  Care  in  Analyz- 
ing, 553 

Moral  Educational  Problems, 
405 

Moral  Manifestations,  405 
Moral  Qualities  in  Analytic  Sub- 
ject, 520 

Morichau-Beauchant,  R.,  14 
Mother  as  Libido- Symbol,  299 
Myth,  Religious,  414 

as  Wish-Phantasy  of  Nation,  243 

Napoleon,  Unconscious  Identifica- 
tion with,  263 

Nature-Cure  as  Rationalization, 

208 

Neurosis,  Origin  of,  104 
Neurosis  and  Infantilism,  244 
Traumatic,  86 
Nietzsche,  on  Cruelty,  319 
Noli  Me  Tangere,  74 
Nuclear  Complex  of  Neurosis,  162 
Numbers,  Associations  of,  346 

Obsessing  Word,  41 
Obsessions,  Sexual  Basis  of,  74 
in  Children,  538 
for  Number,  13,  70 
Obsessional  Love,  83 
Masturbation,  268 
Washing,  68 
(Edipus  Complex,  161 
Female,  322,  269 
Hypothesis,  Criticism  of,  165 
Situation,  299 
Wish,  163 
Offner,  Max,  27 


586 


INDEX 


Onanism  and  Consciousness  of 
Guilt,  102 
Effects  of,  563 

Order  in  the  Psychoanalysis,  504 
Overdetermination  of  Symptoms, 
143 

Paralysis,  Hysterical,  86 
Pseudo,  132 
Parent-Complex,  239 
Parents,  Effect  on  Child  of  Bad 
Relations  between,  548 
Relation  to  Child,  545 
Paresthesia,  184 
Passion  for  Destruction,  77 
Paul,  Apostle,  462 

Represents  Piety  of  Neurotic, 
576 

Pavor  Nocturnus,  87 
Pedanalysis,  how  Learned,  524 
Domain  of,  529,  532 
Rights  of,  531 

Pedagogy,  Benefits  from  Psycho- 
analysis, 544 

Pedagogue,  Advised  to  work  with 
Physician,  493 
Perversions,  200 
Pessimism,  387 

Pfister,  “Analytic  Investigations 
of  Psychology  of  Hate  and 
Reconciliation,”  460 
Phantasy  and  Symptoms,  147 
Waking,  366 

Philosophy  and  the  Unconscious, 
387 

Phobias,  68 
of  Beetles,  212 
of  Pigeons,-  123 

Physicians,  Co-operation  with  Ed- 
ucator, 627 

Physical  Defects  helped  by  Psycho- 
analysis, 537 

Physical  Reactions  during  Dream 
Analysis,  431 

Piety,  Need  for  Liberal,  579 
Plan  of  Life,  Conditioned  by  Com- 
plexes, 405 

Pleasure  Principle  of  Thinking, 
302 


Pleasure-Sucking,  155 
Poet  and  his  Heroes,  401 
Poetry  and  Symbolism,  275 
and  LTnconscious,  400 
Polarization  of  Eroticism,  330 
Postage-Stamp  Collecting  as  Symp- 
tom, 207 

Prescott,  P.  C.,  14 

Pressure,  Points  of,  on  Head,  36 

Projection,  272 

Psychic  Disturbances  in  Pupils, 
537 

Psychoanalysis,  Origin  of,  v 
Application  of  in  Pedagogy,  15 
Bad  Results  in,  541 
Critics  and,  17 
Conclusion  of,  510 
Changes  in,  15,  16 
Definition  of,  1,  20 
Essential  Features  of,  8 
External  Aids  in,  436 
Fundamental  Rule  of,  429 
How  Learned,  524 
in  Medical  Education,  vii 
Results  of,  535 
Technique  of,  427 
Threefold  Direction  of,  488 
and  Attitude  toward  Life,  478 
and  Moral  Delinquents,  541 
and  Religion,  408,  412,  414 
Psychoanalyst,  Requirements  for, 
514 

Psychoanalytic  Cure,  Permanency 
of,  542 

Psychoanalytic  Probing,  Effects 
of,  446 

Psychoanalytic  Review,  12 
Psychoanalytic  Treatment,  Course 
of,  490 

Choice  of  Subject  in,  500 
Prerequisites  of,  513,  518 
Psychology,  Various  Concepts  of, 
49 

Psychopathology  of  Everyday  Life, 
Freud’s,  9 

Psychotherapy,  Dubois’,  439 
Public  Morality  and  the  Individ- 
ual, 104 

Putnam,  James  J.,  14,  507 


INDEX 


587 


Punishment  in  Education,  Discus- 
sion of,  558 
Wrongly  Applied,  186 
Puritanism,  322 

Rank,  Otto,  Inzest-Motiv,  402 
Rationalization,  324 
Reaction-Formation,  319 
Two  Kinds  of,  324 
Reality  Principle  of  Thinking,  302 
Reformation,  The,  577 
Regression,  230 
Atavistic,  243 

Biological  Significance  of,  242 
in  Poetry,  238 
to  Infantile  in  Dream,  360 
to  Infantile  Acts,  239,  240 
Reitler,  Criticism  of  Freud,  161 
Relatives,  Analysis  of,  522 
Religion  and  Instinct,  449 
and  Obsessions,  408 
and  Psychoanalysis,  408,  412,  414 
of  Baal,  574 
of  Israelites,  574 
not  Theory  but  Experience,  578 
Religious  Conversion  as  Reaction- 
Formation,  462 

Religious  Manifestations,  408 
Symbolism,  276 

Reminiscences,  Analysis  of,  258 
Representation  by  Opposite,  320 
Repression,  Definition  of,  55 
Repression,  Herbart’s  Theory  of,  55 
Analytic  Search  for  Motives  of, 
149 

Degree  of,  148 

External  and  Internal  Factors 
in,  108 

General  Conditions  of,  154 
PKantastic,  146 
Traumatic,  141 
and  Reality,  91 
Repression  Process,  141 
Resistance,  168 

Overcoming  of  in  Practice,  496 
Retention  and  Repulsion,  152 
Reversion,  same  as  Regression,  241 
Riklin,  on  Collaboration  of  Peda- 
gogues in  Psychoanalysis,  533 


Robitsek,  Alfred,  240 
Rousseau,  Seeks  Motive  for  Act, 
382 

Sadger,  Monograph  on  K.  F. 
Meyer,  117 

on  Kleist  and  Lenau,  120 
Sadism,  156 
as  Hate,  162 

St.  Vitus’  Dance,  Simulated,  178 
Schleiermacher,  Vision  of,  39 
Schriften  zur  angewandten  Seelen- 
kunde,  12 

Schrotter,  Artificial  Dreams,  362 
Schaulust,  156 

Schiller  and  Father-Complex,  401 
Self-Torturer,  540 
Sensations,  Peculiar  in  Hands  and 
Feet,  81 

Sentimentality,  209 
Serpent  Symbol,  288 
Sexual  Education,  562 
Enlightenment  of  Children,  567 
Factor  in  Psychoneuroses,  86 
Instinct,  155 

Subjects,  Discussion  of  in  Psy- 
choanalytic Treatment,  503 
Theory,  Freud's,  155 
Sexuality,  Freud's  Definition  of,  63 
and  Eroticism,  168 
Shakespeare,  Macbeth,  281 
Shut-in  Natures,  256 
Silberer,  H.,  Hypnoid  Hallucina- 
tions, 241 

Work  on  Symbols,  293 
Smith,  Adam,  Theory  of  Sym- 
pathy, 262 

Snakes,  Hallucinations  of,  66 
Solipsism,  387 
Spanish  Inquisitor,  573 
Speech,  Meaning  of  Secret,  238 
Sperber,  H.,  14 
v.  Speyr,  14 

Stekel,  W.,  Dichtung  und  Neu- 
rose,  120 

Estimation  of  Religion,  413 
on  Bipolarity  of  Dreams,  361 
Stimulus  Words  for  Word-Asso- 
ciation Test,  340 


588 


INDEX 


Stdrring,  Theory  of  Sympathy,  262 
Studies,  Dislike  of  conditioned  by 
Complexes,  553 

Studies  in  Hysteria,  Breuer  and 
Freud,  6 
Stuttering,  84 
Sublimation,  311 
Capacity  for,  315 
on  Basis  of  Repression,  316 
Psychology  of,  313 
Substitution,  Equivalent  of  Identi- 
fication, 270 
Suggestion,  439 
in  Psychoanalysis,  442 
Superimposing  of  Material  in 
Dream,  251 

Superstition,  Analyzed,  36 
Symbolism,- 273 

Symbols,  Deeper  Meaning  of,  299 
Feminine,  293 
as  Manifestation,  280 
Functional,  293,  296 
Masculine,  292 
in  Religion,  275 
of  Christian  Religion,  579 
of  Cross,  276 

Symbol,  Psychology  of,  262,  274 
Simultaneous  Meanings  of,  285 
Typical,  286 
Symbolism  in  Bible,  276 
Symptomatic  Acts,  375 
Obsessional  Character  of,  377 

Taurobolium,  276 
Teacher  as  Father-Substitute,  551 
Teachers’  Need  for  Analysis,  552 
Tendencies,  Mental,  Centrifugal 
and  Centripetal,  255 
Thinking,  Autistic,  303 
Directed,  304 
Reality,  302 
Subjective,  304 
Touching  Phobia,  182 
Training  of  Children,  546 
Transference,  464 
Psychology  of,  469 
Significance  of,  470 
Treatment  of,  472 
Negative,  472 
Positive,  473 


Transposition  of  Emotion,  209 
Traumdeutung,  Freud’s,  9 
Traumatic  Hysteria,  85 
Travel,  Analysis  of  Passiop! 

381  f 

Tremor,  Hysterical,  177 
Twilight  State,  131 

Renunciation  of  Reality  in, 
Twitching  of  Arm,  86 

Unconscious,  The,  Definitiq 
46 

Discussed,  44 
Freud’s  Conception  of,  46 
Demonstration  of,  43 
Experimentally  Proven,  26 
and  Modern  Psychology,  30 
and  Ps}Tchoanalyst,  30 
Unconscious  Motivation,  Exam- 
ples of,  32,  56,  57 
Unlucky  Persons,  Psychology  of, 
110 

Untruthfulness,  75 


Vaginismus,  251 
Vision  of  Angel,  37 
Volition,  52 

Wagner,  Richard,  Complexes  of, 
401 

Wagner,  R.,  Graf’s  Interpretation 
of,  120 

on  Regression  to  Infantile  Pe- 
riod, 242 

Waking-Phantasies,  366 
Waldburger,  A;,  13 
“Werther”  Goethe’s,  Identification 
with,  133 

White,  W.  A.,  12,  14 
Wishfulfillment  in  Dream,  368 
and  Manifestation,  416 
Witticisms,  Condensation  in,  249 
Word  Associations,  340 
Work,  Incapacity  for,  127 
Writer’s  Cramp,  88 
Wundt,  22,  28 

Zentralblatt  fur  Psychoanalyse,  12 
Ziehen,  27 

v.  Zinzendorf,  Graf,  Pfister’s  Mon- 
ograph, 120 


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